Python Documentation contents
- What’s New in Python
- What’s New In Python 3.6
- Summary – Release highlights
- New Features
- PEP 498: Formatted string literals
- PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations
- PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals
- PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators
- PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions
- PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation
- PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements
- PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol
- PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation
- PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8
- PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8
- PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order
- PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order
- New dict implementation
- PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython
- PYTHONMALLOC environment variable
- DTrace and SystemTap probing support
- Other Language Changes
- New Modules
- Improved Modules
- array
- ast
- asyncio
- binascii
- cmath
- collections
- concurrent.futures
- contextlib
- datetime
- decimal
- distutils
- encodings
- enum
- faulthandler
- fileinput
- hashlib
- http.client
- idlelib and IDLE
- importlib
- inspect
- json
- logging
- math
- multiprocessing
- os
- pathlib
- pdb
- pickle
- pickletools
- pydoc
- random
- re
- readline
- rlcompleter
- shlex
- site
- sqlite3
- socket
- socketserver
- ssl
- statistics
- struct
- subprocess
- sys
- telnetlib
- time
- timeit
- tkinter
- traceback
- tracemalloc
- typing
- unicodedata
- unittest.mock
- urllib.request
- urllib.robotparser
- venv
- warnings
- winreg
- winsound
- xmlrpc.client
- zipfile
- zlib
- Optimizations
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Improvements
- Deprecated
- Removed
- Porting to Python 3.6
- Notable changes in Python 3.6.2
- Notable changes in Python 3.6.4
- Notable changes in Python 3.6.5
- Notable changes in Python 3.6.7
- Notable changes in Python 3.6.10
- Notable changes in Python 3.6.13
- Notable changes in Python 3.6.14
- Notable security feature in 3.6.15-13
- What’s New In Python 3.5
- Summary – Release highlights
- New Features
- PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax
- PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication
- PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations
- PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray
- PEP 484 - Type Hints
- PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator
- PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR
- PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators
- PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality
- PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments
- PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files
- PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization
- Other Language Changes
- New Modules
- Improved Modules
- argparse
- asyncio
- bz2
- cgi
- cmath
- code
- collections
- collections.abc
- compileall
- concurrent.futures
- configparser
- contextlib
- csv
- curses
- dbm
- difflib
- distutils
- doctest
- enum
- faulthandler
- functools
- glob
- gzip
- heapq
- http
- http.client
- idlelib and IDLE
- imaplib
- imghdr
- importlib
- inspect
- io
- ipaddress
- json
- linecache
- locale
- logging
- lzma
- math
- multiprocessing
- operator
- os
- pathlib
- pickle
- poplib
- re
- readline
- selectors
- shutil
- signal
- smtpd
- smtplib
- sndhdr
- socket
- ssl
- sqlite3
- subprocess
- sys
- sysconfig
- tarfile
- threading
- time
- timeit
- tkinter
- traceback
- types
- unicodedata
- unittest
- unittest.mock
- urllib
- wsgiref
- xmlrpc
- xml.sax
- zipfile
- Other module-level changes
- Optimizations
- Build and C API Changes
- Deprecated
- Removed
- Porting to Python 3.5
- Notable changes in Python 3.5.4
- What’s New In Python 3.4
- Summary – Release Highlights
- New Features
- New Modules
- Improved Modules
- abc
- aifc
- argparse
- audioop
- base64
- collections
- colorsys
- contextlib
- dbm
- dis
- doctest
- filecmp
- functools
- gc
- glob
- hashlib
- hmac
- html
- http
- idlelib and IDLE
- importlib
- inspect
- ipaddress
- logging
- marshal
- mmap
- multiprocessing
- operator
- os
- pdb
- pickle
- plistlib
- poplib
- pprint
- pty
- pydoc
- re
- resource
- select
- shelve
- shutil
- smtpd
- smtplib
- socket
- sqlite3
- ssl
- stat
- struct
- subprocess
- sunau
- sys
- tarfile
- textwrap
- threading
- traceback
- types
- urllib
- unittest
- venv
- wave
- weakref
- xml.etree
- zipfile
- CPython Implementation Changes
- Deprecated
- Removed
- Porting to Python 3.4
- Changed in 3.4.3
- What’s New In Python 3.3
- Summary – Release highlights
- PEP 405: Virtual Environments
- PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages
- PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation
- PEP 393: Flexible String Representation
- PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows
- PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
- PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
- PEP 409: Suppressing exception context
- PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals
- PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions
- PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary
- PEP 362: Function Signature Object
- PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation
- Using importlib as the Implementation of Import
- Other Language Changes
- A Finer-Grained Import Lock
- Builtin functions and types
- New Modules
- Improved Modules
- abc
- array
- base64
- binascii
- bz2
- codecs
- collections
- contextlib
- crypt
- curses
- datetime
- decimal
- ftplib
- functools
- gc
- hmac
- http
- html
- imaplib
- inspect
- io
- itertools
- logging
- math
- mmap
- multiprocessing
- nntplib
- os
- pdb
- pickle
- pydoc
- re
- sched
- select
- shlex
- shutil
- signal
- smtpd
- smtplib
- socket
- socketserver
- sqlite3
- ssl
- stat
- struct
- subprocess
- sys
- tarfile
- tempfile
- textwrap
- threading
- time
- types
- unittest
- urllib
- webbrowser
- xml.etree.ElementTree
- zlib
- Optimizations
- Build and C API Changes
- Deprecated
- Porting to Python 3.3
- What’s New In Python 3.2
- PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI
- PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module
- PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
- PEP 3148: The
concurrent.futuresmodule - PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories
- PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files
- PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- elementtree
- functools
- itertools
- collections
- threading
- datetime and time
- math
- abc
- io
- reprlib
- logging
- csv
- contextlib
- decimal and fractions
- ftp
- popen
- select
- gzip and zipfile
- tarfile
- hashlib
- ast
- os
- shutil
- sqlite3
- html
- socket
- ssl
- nntp
- certificates
- imaplib
- http.client
- unittest
- random
- poplib
- asyncore
- tempfile
- inspect
- pydoc
- dis
- dbm
- ctypes
- site
- sysconfig
- pdb
- configparser
- urllib.parse
- mailbox
- turtledemo
- Multi-threading
- Optimizations
- Unicode
- Codecs
- Documentation
- IDLE
- Code Repository
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 3.2
- What’s New In Python 3.1
- What’s New In Python 3.0
- What’s New in Python 2.7
- The Future for Python 2.x
- Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
- Python 3.1 Features
- PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
- PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
- PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
- PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
- PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
- PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
- Other Language Changes
- New and Improved Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.7
- New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
- Two new environment variables for debug mode
- PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches
- PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7
- PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7
- PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
- PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7
- New
make regen-allbuild target - Removal of
make touchbuild target
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.6
- Python 3.0
- Changes to the Development Process
- PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
- PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
- PEP 370: Per-user
site-packagesDirectory - PEP 371: The
multiprocessingPackage - PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
- PEP 3105:
printAs a Function - PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
- PEP 3112: Byte Literals
- PEP 3116: New I/O Library
- PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
- PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
- PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
- PEP 3129: Class Decorators
- PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
- Other Language Changes
- New and Improved Modules
- Deprecations and Removals
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.6
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.5
- PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
- PEP 309: Partial Function Application
- PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
- PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
- PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
- PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
- PEP 342: New Generator Features
- PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
- PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
- PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
- PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Removed Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.5
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.4
- PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 289: Generator Expressions
- PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
- PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
- PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
- PEP 324: New subprocess Module
- PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
- PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
- PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.4
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.3
- PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
- PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
- PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
- PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
- PEP 279: enumerate()
- PEP 282: The logging Package
- PEP 285: A Boolean Type
- PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
- PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
- PEP 302: New Import Hooks
- PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
- PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
- Extended Slices
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.3
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.2
- Introduction
- PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
- PEP 234: Iterators
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
- Unicode Changes
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- New and Improved Modules
- Interpreter Changes and Fixes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.1
- Introduction
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- PEP 236: __future__ Directives
- PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
- PEP 230: Warning Framework
- PEP 229: New Build System
- PEP 205: Weak References
- PEP 232: Function Attributes
- PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
- PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
- PEP 208: New Coercion Model
- PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
- New and Improved Modules
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.0
- Introduction
- What About Python 1.6?
- New Development Process
- Unicode
- List Comprehensions
- Augmented Assignment
- String Methods
- Garbage Collection of Cycles
- Other Core Changes
- Porting to 2.0
- Extending/Embedding Changes
- Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
- XML Modules
- Module changes
- New modules
- IDLE Improvements
- Deleted and Deprecated Modules
- Acknowledgements
- Changelog
- Python 3.6.15 final
- Python 3.6.14 final
- Python 3.6.13 final
- Python 3.6.12 final
- Python 3.6.11 final
- Python 3.6.11 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.10 final
- Python 3.6.10 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.9 final
- Python 3.6.9 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.8 final
- Python 3.6.8 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.7 final
- Python 3.6.7 release candidate 2
- Python 3.6.7 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.6 final
- Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.5 final
- Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.4 final
- Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.3 final
- Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.2 final
- Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2
- Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.1 final
- Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.0 final
- Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2
- Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.0 beta 4
- Python 3.6.0 beta 3
- Python 3.6.0 beta 2
- Python 3.6.0 beta 1
- Python 3.6.0 alpha 4
- Python 3.6.0 alpha 3
- Python 3.6.0 alpha 2
- Python 3.6.0 alpha 1
- Python 3.5.3 final
- Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.2 final
- Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.1 final
- Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.0 final
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.0 beta 4
- Python 3.5.0 beta 3
- Python 3.5.0 beta 2
- Python 3.5.0 beta 1
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 4
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 3
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 2
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 1
- What’s New In Python 3.6
- The Python Tutorial
- 1. Whetting Your Appetite
- 2. Using the Python Interpreter
- 3. An Informal Introduction to Python
- 4. More Control Flow Tools
- 5. Data Structures
- 6. Modules
- 7. Input and Output
- 8. Errors and Exceptions
- 9. Classes
- 10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library
- 10.1. Operating System Interface
- 10.2. File Wildcards
- 10.3. Command Line Arguments
- 10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination
- 10.5. String Pattern Matching
- 10.6. Mathematics
- 10.7. Internet Access
- 10.8. Dates and Times
- 10.9. Data Compression
- 10.10. Performance Measurement
- 10.11. Quality Control
- 10.12. Batteries Included
- 11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II
- 12. Virtual Environments and Packages
- 13. What Now?
- 14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution
- 15. Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations
- 16. Appendix
- Python Setup and Usage
- 1. Command line and environment
- 2. Using Python on Unix platforms
- 3. Using Python on Windows
- 3.1. Installing Python
- 3.2. Alternative bundles
- 3.3. Configuring Python
- 3.4. Python Launcher for Windows
- 3.5. Finding modules
- 3.6. Additional modules
- 3.7. Compiling Python on Windows
- 3.8. Embedded Distribution
- 3.9. Other resources
- 4. Using Python on a Macintosh
- The Python Language Reference
- 1. Introduction
- 2. Lexical analysis
- 3. Data model
- 3.1. Objects, values and types
- 3.2. The standard type hierarchy
- 3.3. Special method names
- 3.3.1. Basic customization
- 3.3.2. Customizing attribute access
- 3.3.3. Customizing class creation
- 3.3.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks
- 3.3.5. Emulating callable objects
- 3.3.6. Emulating container types
- 3.3.7. Emulating numeric types
object.__add__()object.__sub__()object.__mul__()object.__matmul__()object.__truediv__()object.__floordiv__()object.__mod__()object.__divmod__()object.__pow__()object.__lshift__()object.__rshift__()object.__and__()object.__xor__()object.__or__()object.__radd__()object.__rsub__()object.__rmul__()object.__rmatmul__()object.__rtruediv__()object.__rfloordiv__()object.__rmod__()object.__rdivmod__()object.__rpow__()object.__rlshift__()object.__rrshift__()object.__rand__()object.__rxor__()object.__ror__()object.__iadd__()object.__isub__()object.__imul__()object.__imatmul__()object.__itruediv__()object.__ifloordiv__()object.__imod__()object.__ipow__()object.__ilshift__()object.__irshift__()object.__iand__()object.__ixor__()object.__ior__()object.__neg__()object.__pos__()object.__abs__()object.__invert__()object.__complex__()object.__int__()object.__float__()object.__index__()object.__round__()object.__trunc__()object.__floor__()object.__ceil__()
- 3.3.8. With Statement Context Managers
- 3.3.9. Special method lookup
- 3.4. Coroutines
- 4. Execution model
- 5. The import system
- 6. Expressions
- 6.1. Arithmetic conversions
- 6.2. Atoms
- 6.3. Primaries
- 6.4. Await expression
- 6.5. The power operator
- 6.6. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations
- 6.7. Binary arithmetic operations
- 6.8. Shifting operations
- 6.9. Binary bitwise operations
- 6.10. Comparisons
- 6.11. Boolean operations
- 6.12. Conditional expressions
- 6.13. Lambdas
- 6.14. Expression lists
- 6.15. Evaluation order
- 6.16. Operator precedence
- 7. Simple statements
- 7.1. Expression statements
- 7.2. Assignment statements
- 7.3. The
assertstatement - 7.4. The
passstatement - 7.5. The
delstatement - 7.6. The
returnstatement - 7.7. The
yieldstatement - 7.8. The
raisestatement - 7.9. The
breakstatement - 7.10. The
continuestatement - 7.11. The
importstatement - 7.12. The
globalstatement - 7.13. The
nonlocalstatement
- 8. Compound statements
- 9. Top-level components
- 10. Full Grammar specification
- The Python Standard Library
- 1. Introduction
- 2. Built-in Functions
abs()all()any()ascii()bin()boolcallable()chr()classmethod()compile()complexdelattr()dir()divmod()enumerate()eval()exec()filter()floatformat()getattr()globals()hasattr()hash()help()hex()id()input()intisinstance()issubclass()iter()len()locals()map()max()min()next()objectoct()open()ord()pow()print()propertyrepr()reversed()round()setattr()slicesorted()staticmethod()sum()super()typevars()zip()__import__()
- 3. Built-in Constants
- 4. Built-in Types
- 4.1. Truth Value Testing
- 4.2. Boolean Operations —
and,or,not - 4.3. Comparisons
- 4.4. Numeric Types —
int,float,complex - 4.5. Iterator Types
- 4.6. Sequence Types —
list,tuple,range - 4.7. Text Sequence Type —
strstr- 4.7.1. String Methods
str.capitalize()str.casefold()str.center()str.count()str.encode()str.endswith()str.expandtabs()str.find()str.format()str.format_map()str.index()str.isalnum()str.isalpha()str.isdecimal()str.isdigit()str.isidentifier()str.islower()str.isnumeric()str.isprintable()str.isspace()str.istitle()str.isupper()str.join()str.ljust()str.lower()str.lstrip()str.maketrans()str.partition()str.replace()str.rfind()str.rindex()str.rjust()str.rpartition()str.rsplit()str.rstrip()str.split()str.splitlines()str.startswith()str.strip()str.swapcase()str.title()str.translate()str.upper()str.zfill()
- 4.7.2.
printf-style String Formatting
- 4.8. Binary Sequence Types —
bytes,bytearray,memoryview- 4.8.1. Bytes Objects
- 4.8.2. Bytearray Objects
- 4.8.3. Bytes and Bytearray Operations
bytes.count()bytearray.count()bytes.decode()bytearray.decode()bytes.endswith()bytearray.endswith()bytes.find()bytearray.find()bytes.index()bytearray.index()bytes.join()bytearray.join()bytes.maketrans()bytearray.maketrans()bytes.partition()bytearray.partition()bytes.replace()bytearray.replace()bytes.rfind()bytearray.rfind()bytes.rindex()bytearray.rindex()bytes.rpartition()bytearray.rpartition()bytes.startswith()bytearray.startswith()bytes.translate()bytearray.translate()bytes.center()bytearray.center()bytes.ljust()bytearray.ljust()bytes.lstrip()bytearray.lstrip()bytes.rjust()bytearray.rjust()bytes.rsplit()bytearray.rsplit()bytes.rstrip()bytearray.rstrip()bytes.split()bytearray.split()bytes.strip()bytearray.strip()bytes.capitalize()bytearray.capitalize()bytes.expandtabs()bytearray.expandtabs()bytes.isalnum()bytearray.isalnum()bytes.isalpha()bytearray.isalpha()bytes.isdigit()bytearray.isdigit()bytes.islower()bytearray.islower()bytes.isspace()bytearray.isspace()bytes.istitle()bytearray.istitle()bytes.isupper()bytearray.isupper()bytes.lower()bytearray.lower()bytes.splitlines()bytearray.splitlines()bytes.swapcase()bytearray.swapcase()bytes.title()bytearray.title()bytes.upper()bytearray.upper()bytes.zfill()bytearray.zfill()
- 4.8.4.
printf-style Bytes Formatting - 4.8.5. Memory Views
memoryviewmemoryview.__eq__()memoryview.tobytes()memoryview.hex()memoryview.tolist()memoryview.release()memoryview.cast()memoryview.objmemoryview.nbytesmemoryview.readonlymemoryview.formatmemoryview.itemsizememoryview.ndimmemoryview.shapememoryview.stridesmemoryview.suboffsetsmemoryview.c_contiguousmemoryview.f_contiguousmemoryview.contiguous
- 4.9. Set Types —
set,frozensetsetfrozensetfrozenset.isdisjoint()frozenset.issubset()frozenset.issuperset()frozenset.union()frozenset.intersection()frozenset.difference()frozenset.symmetric_difference()frozenset.copy()frozenset.update()frozenset.intersection_update()frozenset.difference_update()frozenset.symmetric_difference_update()frozenset.add()frozenset.remove()frozenset.discard()frozenset.pop()frozenset.clear()
- 4.10. Mapping Types —
dict - 4.11. Context Manager Types
- 4.12. Other Built-in Types
- 4.13. Special Attributes
- 4.14. Integer string conversion length limitation
- 5. Built-in Exceptions
- 5.1. Base classes
- 5.2. Concrete exceptions
AssertionErrorAttributeErrorEOFErrorFloatingPointErrorGeneratorExitImportErrorModuleNotFoundErrorIndexErrorKeyErrorKeyboardInterruptMemoryErrorNameErrorNotImplementedErrorOSErrorOverflowErrorRecursionErrorReferenceErrorRuntimeErrorStopIterationStopAsyncIterationSyntaxErrorIndentationErrorTabErrorSystemErrorSystemExitTypeErrorUnboundLocalErrorUnicodeErrorUnicodeEncodeErrorUnicodeDecodeErrorUnicodeTranslateErrorValueErrorZeroDivisionErrorEnvironmentErrorIOErrorWindowsError- 5.2.1. OS exceptions
- 5.3. Warnings
- 5.4. Exception hierarchy
- 6. Text Processing Services
- 6.1.
string— Common string operations - 6.2.
re— Regular expression operations - 6.3.
difflib— Helpers for computing deltasSequenceMatcherDifferHtmlDiffcontext_diff()get_close_matches()ndiff()restore()unified_diff()diff_bytes()IS_LINE_JUNK()IS_CHARACTER_JUNK()- 6.3.1. SequenceMatcher Objects
SequenceMatcherSequenceMatcher.set_seqs()SequenceMatcher.set_seq1()SequenceMatcher.set_seq2()SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match()SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks()SequenceMatcher.get_opcodes()SequenceMatcher.get_grouped_opcodes()SequenceMatcher.ratio()SequenceMatcher.quick_ratio()SequenceMatcher.real_quick_ratio()
- 6.3.2. SequenceMatcher Examples
- 6.3.3. Differ Objects
- 6.3.4. Differ Example
- 6.3.5. A command-line interface to difflib
- 6.4.
textwrap— Text wrapping and fillingwrap()fill()shorten()dedent()indent()TextWrapperTextWrapper.widthTextWrapper.expand_tabsTextWrapper.tabsizeTextWrapper.replace_whitespaceTextWrapper.drop_whitespaceTextWrapper.initial_indentTextWrapper.subsequent_indentTextWrapper.fix_sentence_endingsTextWrapper.break_long_wordsTextWrapper.break_on_hyphensTextWrapper.max_linesTextWrapper.placeholderTextWrapper.wrap()TextWrapper.fill()
- 6.5.
unicodedata— Unicode Database - 6.6.
stringprep— Internet String Preparation - 6.7.
readline— GNU readline interface - 6.8.
rlcompleter— Completion function for GNU readline
- 6.1.
- 7. Binary Data Services
- 7.1.
struct— Interpret bytes as packed binary data - 7.2.
codecs— Codec registry and base classesencode()decode()lookup()CodecInfogetencoder()getdecoder()getincrementalencoder()getincrementaldecoder()getreader()getwriter()register()open()EncodedFile()iterencode()iterdecode()BOMBOM_BEBOM_LEBOM_UTF8BOM_UTF16BOM_UTF16_BEBOM_UTF16_LEBOM_UTF32BOM_UTF32_BEBOM_UTF32_LE- 7.2.1. Codec Base Classes
- 7.2.1.1. Error Handlers
- 7.2.1.2. Stateless Encoding and Decoding
- 7.2.1.3. Incremental Encoding and Decoding
- 7.2.1.4. Stream Encoding and Decoding
- 7.2.2. Encodings and Unicode
- 7.2.3. Standard Encodings
- 7.2.4. Python Specific Encodings
- 7.2.5.
encodings.idna— Internationalized Domain Names in Applications - 7.2.6.
encodings.mbcs— Windows ANSI codepage - 7.2.7.
encodings.utf_8_sig— UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
- 7.1.
- 8. Data Types
- 8.1.
datetime— Basic date and time typesMINYEARMAXYEAR- 8.1.1. Available Types
- 8.1.2.
timedeltaObjects - 8.1.3.
dateObjects - 8.1.4.
datetimeObjectsdatetimedatetime.today()datetime.now()datetime.utcnow()datetime.fromtimestamp()datetime.utcfromtimestamp()datetime.fromordinal()datetime.combine()datetime.strptime()datetime.mindatetime.maxdatetime.resolutiondatetime.yeardatetime.monthdatetime.daydatetime.hourdatetime.minutedatetime.seconddatetime.microseconddatetime.tzinfodatetime.folddatetime.date()datetime.time()datetime.timetz()datetime.replace()datetime.astimezone()datetime.utcoffset()datetime.dst()datetime.tzname()datetime.timetuple()datetime.utctimetuple()datetime.toordinal()datetime.timestamp()datetime.weekday()datetime.isoweekday()datetime.isocalendar()datetime.isoformat()datetime.__str__()datetime.ctime()datetime.strftime()datetime.__format__()
- 8.1.5.
timeObjects - 8.1.6.
tzinfoObjects - 8.1.7.
timezoneObjects - 8.1.8.
strftime()andstrptime()Behavior
- 8.2.
calendar— General calendar-related functions - 8.3.
collections— Container datatypes - 8.4.
collections.abc— Abstract Base Classes for Containers - 8.5.
heapq— Heap queue algorithm - 8.6.
bisect— Array bisection algorithm - 8.7.
array— Efficient arrays of numeric valuesarrayarray.typecodearray.itemsizearray.append()array.buffer_info()array.byteswap()array.count()array.extend()array.frombytes()array.fromfile()array.fromlist()array.fromstring()array.fromunicode()array.index()array.insert()array.pop()array.remove()array.reverse()array.tobytes()array.tofile()array.tolist()array.tostring()array.tounicode()
typecodes
- 8.8.
weakref— Weak references - 8.9.
types— Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types- 8.9.1. Dynamic Type Creation
- 8.9.2. Standard Interpreter Types
- 8.9.3. Additional Utility Classes and Functions
- 8.9.4. Coroutine Utility Functions
- 8.10.
copy— Shallow and deep copy operations - 8.11.
pprint— Data pretty printer - 8.12.
reprlib— Alternaterepr()implementation - 8.13.
enum— Support for enumerations- 8.13.1. Module Contents
- 8.13.2. Creating an Enum
- 8.13.3. Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes
- 8.13.4. Duplicating enum members and values
- 8.13.5. Ensuring unique enumeration values
- 8.13.6. Using automatic values
- 8.13.7. Iteration
- 8.13.8. Comparisons
- 8.13.9. Allowed members and attributes of enumerations
- 8.13.10. Restricted subclassing of enumerations
- 8.13.11. Pickling
- 8.13.12. Functional API
- 8.13.13. Derived Enumerations
- 8.13.14. Interesting examples
- 8.13.15. How are Enums different?
- 8.1.
- 9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules
- 9.1.
numbers— Numeric abstract base classes - 9.2.
math— Mathematical functions - 9.3.
cmath— Mathematical functions for complex numbers - 9.4.
decimal— Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic- 9.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial
- 9.4.2. Decimal objects
DecimalDecimal.adjusted()Decimal.as_integer_ratio()Decimal.as_tuple()Decimal.canonical()Decimal.compare()Decimal.compare_signal()Decimal.compare_total()Decimal.compare_total_mag()Decimal.conjugate()Decimal.copy_abs()Decimal.copy_negate()Decimal.copy_sign()Decimal.exp()Decimal.from_float()Decimal.fma()Decimal.is_canonical()Decimal.is_finite()Decimal.is_infinite()Decimal.is_nan()Decimal.is_normal()Decimal.is_qnan()Decimal.is_signed()Decimal.is_snan()Decimal.is_subnormal()Decimal.is_zero()Decimal.ln()Decimal.log10()Decimal.logb()Decimal.logical_and()Decimal.logical_invert()Decimal.logical_or()Decimal.logical_xor()Decimal.max()Decimal.max_mag()Decimal.min()Decimal.min_mag()Decimal.next_minus()Decimal.next_plus()Decimal.next_toward()Decimal.normalize()Decimal.number_class()Decimal.quantize()Decimal.radix()Decimal.remainder_near()Decimal.rotate()Decimal.same_quantum()Decimal.scaleb()Decimal.shift()Decimal.sqrt()Decimal.to_eng_string()Decimal.to_integral()Decimal.to_integral_exact()Decimal.to_integral_value()
- 9.4.2.1. Logical operands
- 9.4.3. Context objects
getcontext()setcontext()localcontext()BasicContextExtendedContextDefaultContextContextContext.clear_flags()Context.clear_traps()Context.copy()Context.copy_decimal()Context.create_decimal()Context.create_decimal_from_float()Context.Etiny()Context.Etop()Context.abs()Context.add()Context.canonical()Context.compare()Context.compare_signal()Context.compare_total()Context.compare_total_mag()Context.copy_abs()Context.copy_negate()Context.copy_sign()Context.divide()Context.divide_int()Context.divmod()Context.exp()Context.fma()Context.is_canonical()Context.is_finite()Context.is_infinite()Context.is_nan()Context.is_normal()Context.is_qnan()Context.is_signed()Context.is_snan()Context.is_subnormal()Context.is_zero()Context.ln()Context.log10()Context.logb()Context.logical_and()Context.logical_invert()Context.logical_or()Context.logical_xor()Context.max()Context.max_mag()Context.min()Context.min_mag()Context.minus()Context.multiply()Context.next_minus()Context.next_plus()Context.next_toward()Context.normalize()Context.number_class()Context.plus()Context.power()Context.quantize()Context.radix()Context.remainder()Context.remainder_near()Context.rotate()Context.same_quantum()Context.scaleb()Context.shift()Context.sqrt()Context.subtract()Context.to_eng_string()Context.to_integral_exact()Context.to_sci_string()
- 9.4.4. Constants
- 9.4.5. Rounding modes
- 9.4.6. Signals
- 9.4.7. Floating Point Notes
- 9.4.8. Working with threads
- 9.4.9. Recipes
- 9.4.10. Decimal FAQ
- 9.5.
fractions— Rational numbers - 9.6.
random— Generate pseudo-random numbers - 9.7.
statistics— Mathematical statistics functions
- 9.1.
- 10. Functional Programming Modules
- 10.1.
itertools— Functions creating iterators for efficient looping - 10.2.
functools— Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects - 10.3.
operator— Standard operators as functionslt()le()eq()ne()ge()gt()__lt__()__le__()__eq__()__ne__()__ge__()__gt__()not_()__not__()truth()is_()is_not()abs()__abs__()add()__add__()and_()__and__()floordiv()__floordiv__()index()__index__()inv()invert()__inv__()__invert__()lshift()__lshift__()mod()__mod__()mul()__mul__()matmul()__matmul__()neg()__neg__()or_()__or__()pos()__pos__()pow()__pow__()rshift()__rshift__()sub()__sub__()truediv()__truediv__()xor()__xor__()concat()__concat__()contains()__contains__()countOf()delitem()__delitem__()getitem()__getitem__()indexOf()setitem()__setitem__()length_hint()attrgetter()itemgetter()methodcaller()- 10.3.1. Mapping Operators to Functions
- 10.3.2. Inplace Operators
- 10.1.
- 11. File and Directory Access
- 11.1.
pathlib— Object-oriented filesystem paths- 11.1.1. Basic use
- 11.1.2. Pure paths
PurePathPurePosixPathPureWindowsPath- 11.1.2.1. General properties
- 11.1.2.2. Operators
- 11.1.2.3. Accessing individual parts
- 11.1.2.4. Methods and properties
PurePath.drivePurePath.rootPurePath.anchorPurePath.parentsPurePath.parentPurePath.namePurePath.suffixPurePath.suffixesPurePath.stemPurePath.as_posix()PurePath.as_uri()PurePath.is_absolute()PurePath.is_reserved()PurePath.joinpath()PurePath.match()PurePath.relative_to()PurePath.with_name()PurePath.with_suffix()
- 11.1.3. Concrete paths
PathPosixPathWindowsPath- 11.1.3.1. Methods
Path.cwd()Path.home()Path.stat()Path.chmod()Path.exists()Path.expanduser()Path.glob()Path.group()Path.is_dir()Path.is_file()Path.is_symlink()Path.is_socket()Path.is_fifo()Path.is_block_device()Path.is_char_device()Path.iterdir()Path.lchmod()Path.lstat()Path.mkdir()Path.open()Path.owner()Path.read_bytes()Path.read_text()Path.rename()Path.replace()Path.resolve()Path.rglob()Path.rmdir()Path.samefile()Path.symlink_to()Path.touch()Path.unlink()Path.write_bytes()Path.write_text()
- 11.2.
os.path— Common pathname manipulationsabspath()basename()commonpath()commonprefix()dirname()exists()lexists()expanduser()expandvars()getatime()getmtime()getctime()getsize()isabs()isfile()isdir()islink()ismount()join()normcase()normpath()realpath()relpath()samefile()sameopenfile()samestat()split()splitdrive()splitext()splitunc()supports_unicode_filenames
- 11.3.
fileinput— Iterate over lines from multiple input streams - 11.4.
stat— Interpretingstat()resultsS_ISDIR()S_ISCHR()S_ISBLK()S_ISREG()S_ISFIFO()S_ISLNK()S_ISSOCK()S_ISDOOR()S_ISPORT()S_ISWHT()S_IMODE()S_IFMT()filemode()ST_MODEST_INOST_DEVST_NLINKST_UIDST_GIDST_SIZEST_ATIMEST_MTIMEST_CTIMES_IFSOCKS_IFLNKS_IFREGS_IFBLKS_IFDIRS_IFCHRS_IFIFOS_IFDOORS_IFPORTS_IFWHTS_ISUIDS_ISGIDS_ISVTXS_IRWXUS_IRUSRS_IWUSRS_IXUSRS_IRWXGS_IRGRPS_IWGRPS_IXGRPS_IRWXOS_IROTHS_IWOTHS_IXOTHS_ENFMTS_IREADS_IWRITES_IEXECUF_NODUMPUF_IMMUTABLEUF_APPENDUF_OPAQUEUF_NOUNLINKUF_COMPRESSEDUF_HIDDENSF_ARCHIVEDSF_IMMUTABLESF_APPENDSF_NOUNLINKSF_SNAPSHOTFILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVEFILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSEDFILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICEFILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORYFILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTEDFILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDENFILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAMFILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMALFILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXEDFILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATAFILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINEFILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLYFILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINTFILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILEFILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEMFILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARYFILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL
- 11.5.
filecmp— File and Directory Comparisonscmp()cmpfiles()clear_cache()- 11.5.1. The
dircmpclassdircmpdircmp.report()dircmp.report_partial_closure()dircmp.report_full_closure()dircmp.leftdircmp.rightdircmp.left_listdircmp.right_listdircmp.commondircmp.left_onlydircmp.right_onlydircmp.common_dirsdircmp.common_filesdircmp.common_funnydircmp.same_filesdircmp.diff_filesdircmp.funny_filesdircmp.subdirs
DEFAULT_IGNORES
- 11.6.
tempfile— Generate temporary files and directories - 11.7.
glob— Unix style pathname pattern expansion - 11.8.
fnmatch— Unix filename pattern matching - 11.9.
linecache— Random access to text lines - 11.10.
shutil— High-level file operations - 11.11.
macpath— Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions
- 11.1.
- 12. Data Persistence
- 12.1.
pickle— Python object serialization - 12.2.
copyreg— Registerpicklesupport functions - 12.3.
shelve— Python object persistence - 12.4.
marshal— Internal Python object serialization - 12.5.
dbm— Interfaces to Unix “databases” - 12.6.
sqlite3— DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases- 12.6.1. Module functions and constants
- 12.6.2. Connection Objects
ConnectionConnection.isolation_levelConnection.in_transactionConnection.cursor()Connection.commit()Connection.rollback()Connection.close()Connection.execute()Connection.executemany()Connection.executescript()Connection.create_function()Connection.create_aggregate()Connection.create_collation()Connection.interrupt()Connection.set_authorizer()Connection.set_progress_handler()Connection.set_trace_callback()Connection.enable_load_extension()Connection.load_extension()Connection.row_factoryConnection.text_factoryConnection.total_changesConnection.iterdump()
- 12.6.3. Cursor Objects
- 12.6.4. Row Objects
- 12.6.5. Exceptions
- 12.6.6. SQLite and Python types
- 12.6.7. Controlling Transactions
- 12.6.8. Using
sqlite3efficiently - 12.6.9. Common issues
- 12.1.
- 13. Data Compression and Archiving
- 13.1.
zlib— Compression compatible with gzip - 13.2.
gzip— Support for gzip files - 13.3.
bz2— Support for bzip2 compression - 13.4.
lzma— Compression using the LZMA algorithm - 13.5.
zipfile— Work with ZIP archivesBadZipFileBadZipfileLargeZipFileZipInfois_zipfile()ZIP_STOREDZIP_DEFLATEDZIP_BZIP2ZIP_LZMA- 13.5.1. ZipFile Objects
- 13.5.2. PyZipFile Objects
- 13.5.3. ZipInfo Objects
ZipInfo.from_file()ZipInfo.is_dir()ZipInfo.filenameZipInfo.date_timeZipInfo.compress_typeZipInfo.commentZipInfo.extraZipInfo.create_systemZipInfo.create_versionZipInfo.extract_versionZipInfo.reservedZipInfo.flag_bitsZipInfo.volumeZipInfo.internal_attrZipInfo.external_attrZipInfo.header_offsetZipInfo.CRCZipInfo.compress_sizeZipInfo.file_size
- 13.5.4. Command-Line Interface
- 13.5.5. Decompression pitfalls
- 13.6.
tarfile— Read and write tar archive filesopen()TarFileis_tarfile()TarErrorReadErrorCompressionErrorStreamErrorExtractErrorHeaderErrorENCODINGUSTAR_FORMATGNU_FORMATPAX_FORMATDEFAULT_FORMAT- 13.6.1. TarFile Objects
- 13.6.2. TarInfo Objects
TarInfoTarInfo.frombuf()TarInfo.fromtarfile()TarInfo.tobuf()TarInfo.nameTarInfo.sizeTarInfo.mtimeTarInfo.modeTarInfo.typeTarInfo.linknameTarInfo.uidTarInfo.gidTarInfo.unameTarInfo.gnameTarInfo.pax_headersTarInfo.isfile()TarInfo.isreg()TarInfo.isdir()TarInfo.issym()TarInfo.islnk()TarInfo.ischr()TarInfo.isblk()TarInfo.isfifo()TarInfo.isdev()
- 13.6.3. Command-Line Interface
- 13.6.4. Examples
- 13.6.5. Supported tar formats
- 13.6.6. Unicode issues
- 13.1.
- 14. File Formats
- 14.1.
csv— CSV File Reading and Writing - 14.2.
configparser— Configuration file parser- 14.2.1. Quick Start
- 14.2.2. Supported Datatypes
- 14.2.3. Fallback Values
- 14.2.4. Supported INI File Structure
- 14.2.5. Interpolation of values
- 14.2.6. Mapping Protocol Access
- 14.2.7. Customizing Parser Behaviour
- 14.2.8. Legacy API Examples
- 14.2.9. ConfigParser Objects
ConfigParserConfigParser.defaults()ConfigParser.sections()ConfigParser.add_section()ConfigParser.has_section()ConfigParser.options()ConfigParser.has_option()ConfigParser.read()ConfigParser.read_file()ConfigParser.read_string()ConfigParser.read_dict()ConfigParser.get()ConfigParser.getint()ConfigParser.getfloat()ConfigParser.getboolean()ConfigParser.items()ConfigParser.set()ConfigParser.write()ConfigParser.remove_option()ConfigParser.remove_section()ConfigParser.optionxform()ConfigParser.readfp()
MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH
- 14.2.10. RawConfigParser Objects
- 14.2.11. Exceptions
- 14.3.
netrc— netrc file processing - 14.4.
xdrlib— Encode and decode XDR dataPackerUnpacker- 14.4.1. Packer Objects
- 14.4.2. Unpacker Objects
Unpacker.reset()Unpacker.get_position()Unpacker.set_position()Unpacker.get_buffer()Unpacker.done()Unpacker.unpack_float()Unpacker.unpack_double()Unpacker.unpack_fstring()Unpacker.unpack_fopaque()Unpacker.unpack_string()Unpacker.unpack_opaque()Unpacker.unpack_bytes()Unpacker.unpack_list()Unpacker.unpack_farray()Unpacker.unpack_array()
- 14.4.3. Exceptions
- 14.5.
plistlib— Generate and parse Mac OS X.plistfiles
- 14.1.
- 15. Cryptographic Services
- 15.1.
hashlib— Secure hashes and message digests - 15.2.
hmac— Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication - 15.3.
secrets— Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets
- 15.1.
- 16. Generic Operating System Services
- 16.1.
os— Miscellaneous operating system interfaceserrorname- 16.1.1. File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables
- 16.1.2. Process Parameters
ctermid()environenvironbfsencode()fsdecode()fspath()PathLikegetenv()getenvb()get_exec_path()getegid()geteuid()getgid()getgrouplist()getgroups()getlogin()getpgid()getpgrp()getpid()getppid()getpriority()PRIO_PROCESSPRIO_PGRPPRIO_USERgetresuid()getresgid()getuid()initgroups()putenv()setegid()seteuid()setgid()setgroups()setpgrp()setpgid()setpriority()setregid()setresgid()setresuid()setreuid()getsid()setsid()setuid()strerror()supports_bytes_environumask()uname()unsetenv()
- 16.1.3. File Object Creation
- 16.1.4. File Descriptor Operations
close()closerange()device_encoding()dup()dup2()fchmod()fchown()fdatasync()fpathconf()fstat()fstatvfs()fsync()ftruncate()get_blocking()isatty()lockf()F_LOCKF_TLOCKF_ULOCKF_TESTlseek()SEEK_SETSEEK_CURSEEK_ENDopen()O_RDONLYO_WRONLYO_RDWRO_APPENDO_CREATO_EXCLO_TRUNCO_DSYNCO_RSYNCO_SYNCO_NDELAYO_NONBLOCKO_NOCTTYO_CLOEXECO_BINARYO_NOINHERITO_SHORT_LIVEDO_TEMPORARYO_RANDOMO_SEQUENTIALO_TEXTO_ASYNCO_DIRECTO_DIRECTORYO_NOFOLLOWO_NOATIMEO_PATHO_TMPFILEO_SHLOCKO_EXLOCKopenpty()pipe()pipe2()posix_fallocate()posix_fadvise()POSIX_FADV_NORMALPOSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIALPOSIX_FADV_RANDOMPOSIX_FADV_NOREUSEPOSIX_FADV_WILLNEEDPOSIX_FADV_DONTNEEDpread()pwrite()read()sendfile()set_blocking()SF_NODISKIOSF_MNOWAITSF_SYNCreadv()tcgetpgrp()tcsetpgrp()ttyname()write()writev()- 16.1.4.1. Querying the size of a terminal
- 16.1.4.2. Inheritance of File Descriptors
- 16.1.5. Files and Directories
access()F_OKR_OKW_OKX_OKchdir()chflags()chmod()chown()chroot()fchdir()getcwd()getcwdb()lchflags()lchmod()lchown()link()listdir()lstat()mkdir()makedirs()mkfifo()mknod()major()minor()makedev()pathconf()pathconf_namesreadlink()remove()removedirs()rename()renames()replace()rmdir()scandir()DirEntrystat()stat_resultstat_result.st_modestat_result.st_inostat_result.st_devstat_result.st_nlinkstat_result.st_uidstat_result.st_gidstat_result.st_sizestat_result.st_atimestat_result.st_mtimestat_result.st_ctimestat_result.st_atime_nsstat_result.st_mtime_nsstat_result.st_ctime_nsstat_result.st_blocksstat_result.st_blksizestat_result.st_rdevstat_result.st_flagsstat_result.st_genstat_result.st_birthtimestat_result.st_rsizestat_result.st_creatorstat_result.st_typestat_result.st_file_attributes
stat_float_times()statvfs()supports_dir_fdsupports_effective_idssupports_fdsupports_follow_symlinkssymlink()sync()truncate()unlink()utime()walk()fwalk()- 16.1.5.1. Linux extended attributes
- 16.1.6. Process Management
abort()execl()execle()execlp()execlpe()execv()execve()execvp()execvpe()_exit()EX_OKEX_USAGEEX_DATAERREX_NOINPUTEX_NOUSEREX_NOHOSTEX_UNAVAILABLEEX_SOFTWAREEX_OSERREX_OSFILEEX_CANTCREATEX_IOERREX_TEMPFAILEX_PROTOCOLEX_NOPERMEX_CONFIGEX_NOTFOUNDfork()forkpty()kill()killpg()nice()plock()popen()spawnl()spawnle()spawnlp()spawnlpe()spawnv()spawnve()spawnvp()spawnvpe()P_NOWAITP_NOWAITOP_WAITP_DETACHP_OVERLAYstartfile()system()times()wait()waitid()P_PIDP_PGIDP_ALLWEXITEDWSTOPPEDWNOWAITCLD_EXITEDCLD_DUMPEDCLD_TRAPPEDCLD_CONTINUEDwaitpid()wait3()wait4()WNOHANGWCONTINUEDWUNTRACEDWCOREDUMP()WIFCONTINUED()WIFSTOPPED()WIFSIGNALED()WIFEXITED()WEXITSTATUS()WSTOPSIG()WTERMSIG()
- 16.1.7. Interface to the scheduler
SCHED_OTHERSCHED_BATCHSCHED_IDLESCHED_SPORADICSCHED_FIFOSCHED_RRSCHED_RESET_ON_FORKsched_paramsched_get_priority_min()sched_get_priority_max()sched_setscheduler()sched_getscheduler()sched_setparam()sched_getparam()sched_rr_get_interval()sched_yield()sched_setaffinity()sched_getaffinity()
- 16.1.8. Miscellaneous System Information
- 16.1.9. Random numbers
- 16.2.
io— Core tools for working with streams - 16.3.
time— Time access and conversions - 16.4.
argparse— Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands- 16.4.1. Example
- 16.4.2. ArgumentParser objects
- 16.4.3. The add_argument() method
- 16.4.4. The parse_args() method
- 16.4.5. Other utilities
- 16.4.6. Upgrading optparse code
- 16.5.
getopt— C-style parser for command line options - 16.6.
logging— Logging facility for Python- 16.6.1. Logger Objects
LoggerLogger.propagateLogger.setLevel()Logger.isEnabledFor()Logger.getEffectiveLevel()Logger.getChild()Logger.debug()Logger.info()Logger.warning()Logger.error()Logger.critical()Logger.log()Logger.exception()Logger.addFilter()Logger.removeFilter()Logger.filter()Logger.addHandler()Logger.removeHandler()Logger.findCaller()Logger.handle()Logger.makeRecord()Logger.hasHandlers()
- 16.6.2. Logging Levels
- 16.6.3. Handler Objects
- 16.6.4. Formatter Objects
- 16.6.5. Filter Objects
- 16.6.6. LogRecord Objects
- 16.6.7. LogRecord attributes
- 16.6.8. LoggerAdapter Objects
- 16.6.9. Thread Safety
- 16.6.10. Module-Level Functions
- 16.6.11. Module-Level Attributes
- 16.6.12. Integration with the warnings module
- 16.6.1. Logger Objects
- 16.7.
logging.config— Logging configuration - 16.8.
logging.handlers— Logging handlers- 16.8.1. StreamHandler
- 16.8.2. FileHandler
- 16.8.3. NullHandler
- 16.8.4. WatchedFileHandler
- 16.8.5. BaseRotatingHandler
- 16.8.6. RotatingFileHandler
- 16.8.7. TimedRotatingFileHandler
- 16.8.8. SocketHandler
- 16.8.9. DatagramHandler
- 16.8.10. SysLogHandler
- 16.8.11. NTEventLogHandler
- 16.8.12. SMTPHandler
- 16.8.13. MemoryHandler
- 16.8.14. HTTPHandler
- 16.8.15. QueueHandler
- 16.8.16. QueueListener
- 16.9.
getpass— Portable password input - 16.10.
curses— Terminal handling for character-cell displays- 16.10.1. Functions
errorbaudrate()beep()can_change_color()cbreak()color_content()color_pair()curs_set()def_prog_mode()def_shell_mode()delay_output()doupdate()echo()endwin()erasechar()filter()flash()flushinp()getmouse()getsyx()getwin()has_colors()has_ic()has_il()has_key()halfdelay()init_color()init_pair()initscr()is_term_resized()isendwin()keyname()killchar()longname()meta()mouseinterval()mousemask()napms()newpad()newwin()nl()nocbreak()noecho()nonl()noqiflush()noraw()pair_content()pair_number()putp()qiflush()raw()reset_prog_mode()reset_shell_mode()resetty()resize_term()resizeterm()savetty()setsyx()setupterm()start_color()termattrs()termname()tigetflag()tigetnum()tigetstr()tparm()typeahead()unctrl()ungetch()update_lines_cols()unget_wch()ungetmouse()use_env()use_default_colors()wrapper()
- 16.10.2. Window Objects
window.addch()window.addnstr()window.addstr()window.attroff()window.attron()window.attrset()window.bkgd()window.bkgdset()window.border()window.box()window.chgat()window.clear()window.clearok()window.clrtobot()window.clrtoeol()window.cursyncup()window.delch()window.deleteln()window.derwin()window.echochar()window.enclose()window.encodingwindow.erase()window.getbegyx()window.getbkgd()window.getch()window.get_wch()window.getkey()window.getmaxyx()window.getparyx()window.getstr()window.getyx()window.hline()window.idcok()window.idlok()window.immedok()window.inch()window.insch()window.insdelln()window.insertln()window.insnstr()window.insstr()window.instr()window.is_linetouched()window.is_wintouched()window.keypad()window.leaveok()window.move()window.mvderwin()window.mvwin()window.nodelay()window.notimeout()window.noutrefresh()window.overlay()window.overwrite()window.putwin()window.redrawln()window.redrawwin()window.refresh()window.resize()window.scroll()window.scrollok()window.setscrreg()window.standend()window.standout()window.subpad()window.subwin()window.syncdown()window.syncok()window.syncup()window.timeout()window.touchline()window.touchwin()window.untouchwin()window.vline()
- 16.10.3. Constants
- 16.10.1. Functions
- 16.11.
curses.textpad— Text input widget for curses programs - 16.12.
curses.ascii— Utilities for ASCII characters - 16.13.
curses.panel— A panel stack extension for curses - 16.14.
platform— Access to underlying platform’s identifying data - 16.15.
errno— Standard errno system symbolserrorcodeEPERMENOENTESRCHEINTREIOENXIOE2BIGENOEXECEBADFECHILDEAGAINENOMEMEACCESEFAULTENOTBLKEBUSYEEXISTEXDEVENODEVENOTDIREISDIREINVALENFILEEMFILEENOTTYETXTBSYEFBIGENOSPCESPIPEEROFSEMLINKEPIPEEDOMERANGEEDEADLKENAMETOOLONGENOLCKENOSYSENOTEMPTYELOOPEWOULDBLOCKENOMSGEIDRMECHRNGEL2NSYNCEL3HLTEL3RSTELNRNGEUNATCHENOCSIEL2HLTEBADEEBADREXFULLENOANOEBADRQCEBADSLTEDEADLOCKEBFONTENOSTRENODATAETIMEENOSRENONETENOPKGEREMOTEENOLINKEADVESRMNTECOMMEPROTOEMULTIHOPEDOTDOTEBADMSGEOVERFLOWENOTUNIQEBADFDEREMCHGELIBACCELIBBADELIBSCNELIBMAXELIBEXECEILSEQERESTARTESTRPIPEEUSERSENOTSOCKEDESTADDRREQEMSGSIZEEPROTOTYPEENOPROTOOPTEPROTONOSUPPORTESOCKTNOSUPPORTEOPNOTSUPPEPFNOSUPPORTEAFNOSUPPORTEADDRINUSEEADDRNOTAVAILENETDOWNENETUNREACHENETRESETECONNABORTEDECONNRESETENOBUFSEISCONNENOTCONNESHUTDOWNETOOMANYREFSETIMEDOUTECONNREFUSEDEHOSTDOWNEHOSTUNREACHEALREADYEINPROGRESSESTALEEUCLEANENOTNAMENAVAILEISNAMEREMOTEIOEDQUOT
- 16.16.
ctypes— A foreign function library for Python- 16.16.1. ctypes tutorial
- 16.16.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries
- 16.16.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls
- 16.16.1.3. Calling functions
- 16.16.1.4. Fundamental data types
- 16.16.1.5. Calling functions, continued
- 16.16.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data types
- 16.16.1.7. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
- 16.16.1.8. Return types
- 16.16.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)
- 16.16.1.10. Structures and unions
- 16.16.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order
- 16.16.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions
- 16.16.1.13. Arrays
- 16.16.1.14. Pointers
- 16.16.1.15. Type conversions
- 16.16.1.16. Incomplete Types
- 16.16.1.17. Callback functions
- 16.16.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls
- 16.16.1.19. Surprises
- 16.16.1.20. Variable-sized data types
- 16.16.2. ctypes reference
- 16.16.2.1. Finding shared libraries
- 16.16.2.2. Loading shared libraries
- 16.16.2.3. Foreign functions
- 16.16.2.4. Function prototypes
- 16.16.2.5. Utility functions
addressof()alignment()byref()cast()create_string_buffer()create_unicode_buffer()DllCanUnloadNow()DllGetClassObject()find_library()find_msvcrt()FormatError()GetLastError()get_errno()get_last_error()memmove()memset()POINTER()pointer()resize()set_errno()set_last_error()sizeof()string_at()WinError()wstring_at()
- 16.16.2.6. Data types
- 16.16.2.7. Fundamental data types
- 16.16.2.8. Structured data types
- 16.16.2.9. Arrays and pointers
- 16.16.1. ctypes tutorial
- 16.1.
- 17. Concurrent Execution
- 17.1.
threading— Thread-based parallelismactive_count()current_thread()get_ident()enumerate()main_thread()settrace()setprofile()stack_size()TIMEOUT_MAX- 17.1.1. Thread-Local Data
- 17.1.2. Thread Objects
- 17.1.3. Lock Objects
- 17.1.4. RLock Objects
- 17.1.5. Condition Objects
- 17.1.6. Semaphore Objects
- 17.1.7. Event Objects
- 17.1.8. Timer Objects
- 17.1.9. Barrier Objects
- 17.1.10. Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the
withstatement
- 17.2.
multiprocessing— Process-based parallelism- 17.2.1. Introduction
- 17.2.2. Reference
- 17.2.2.1.
Processand exceptions - 17.2.2.2. Pipes and Queues
- 17.2.2.3. Miscellaneous
- 17.2.2.4. Connection Objects
- 17.2.2.5. Synchronization primitives
- 17.2.2.6. Shared
ctypesObjects - 17.2.2.7. Managers
- 17.2.2.8. Proxy Objects
- 17.2.2.9. Process Pools
- 17.2.2.10. Listeners and Clients
- 17.2.2.11. Authentication keys
- 17.2.2.12. Logging
- 17.2.2.13. The
multiprocessing.dummymodule
- 17.2.2.1.
- 17.2.3. Programming guidelines
- 17.2.4. Examples
- 17.3. The
concurrentpackage - 17.4.
concurrent.futures— Launching parallel tasks - 17.5.
subprocess— Subprocess management- 17.5.1. Using the
subprocessModule - 17.5.2. Security Considerations
- 17.5.3. Popen Objects
- 17.5.4. Windows Popen Helpers
- 17.5.5. Older high-level API
- 17.5.6. Replacing Older Functions with the
subprocessModule - 17.5.7. Legacy Shell Invocation Functions
- 17.5.8. Notes
- 17.5.1. Using the
- 17.6.
sched— Event scheduler - 17.7.
queue— A synchronized queue class - 17.8.
dummy_threading— Drop-in replacement for thethreadingmodule - 17.9.
_thread— Low-level threading API - 17.10.
_dummy_thread— Drop-in replacement for the_threadmodule
- 17.1.
- 18. Interprocess Communication and Networking
- 18.1.
socket— Low-level networking interface- 18.1.1. Socket families
- 18.1.2. Module contents
- 18.1.2.1. Exceptions
- 18.1.2.2. Constants
AF_UNIXAF_INETAF_INET6SOCK_STREAMSOCK_DGRAMSOCK_RAWSOCK_RDMSOCK_SEQPACKETSOCK_CLOEXECSOCK_NONBLOCKSOMAXCONNAF_CANPF_CANCAN_BCMCAN_RAW_FD_FRAMESAF_PACKETPF_PACKETAF_RDSPF_RDSSOL_RDSSIO_RCVALLSIO_KEEPALIVE_VALSSIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATHAF_ALGSOL_ALGAF_LINKhas_ipv6BDADDR_ANYBDADDR_LOCALHCI_FILTERHCI_TIME_STAMPHCI_DATA_DIR
- 18.1.2.3. Functions
- 18.1.2.3.1. Creating sockets
- 18.1.2.3.2. Other functions
getaddrinfo()getfqdn()gethostbyname()gethostbyname_ex()gethostname()gethostbyaddr()getnameinfo()getprotobyname()getservbyname()getservbyport()ntohl()ntohs()htonl()htons()inet_aton()inet_ntoa()inet_pton()inet_ntop()CMSG_LEN()CMSG_SPACE()getdefaulttimeout()setdefaulttimeout()sethostname()if_nameindex()if_nametoindex()if_indextoname()
- 18.1.3. Socket Objects
socket.accept()socket.bind()socket.close()socket.connect()socket.connect_ex()socket.detach()socket.dup()socket.fileno()socket.get_inheritable()socket.getpeername()socket.getsockname()socket.getsockopt()socket.gettimeout()socket.ioctl()socket.listen()socket.makefile()socket.recv()socket.recvfrom()socket.recvmsg()socket.recvmsg_into()socket.recvfrom_into()socket.recv_into()socket.send()socket.sendall()socket.sendto()socket.sendmsg()socket.sendmsg_afalg()socket.sendfile()socket.set_inheritable()socket.setblocking()socket.settimeout()socket.setsockopt()socket.setsockopt()socket.setsockopt()socket.shutdown()socket.share()socket.familysocket.typesocket.proto
- 18.1.4. Notes on socket timeouts
- 18.1.5. Example
- 18.2.
ssl— TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects- 18.2.1. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions
SSLErrorSSLZeroReturnErrorSSLWantReadErrorSSLWantWriteErrorSSLSyscallErrorSSLEOFErrorCertificateError- 18.2.1.1. Socket creation
- 18.2.1.2. Context creation
- 18.2.1.3. Random generation
- 18.2.1.4. Certificate handling
- 18.2.1.5. Constants
CERT_NONECERT_OPTIONALCERT_REQUIREDVerifyModeVERIFY_DEFAULTVERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAFVERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAINVERIFY_X509_STRICTVERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRSTVerifyFlagsPROTOCOL_TLSPROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENTPROTOCOL_TLS_SERVERPROTOCOL_SSLv23PROTOCOL_SSLv2PROTOCOL_SSLv3PROTOCOL_TLSv1PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2OP_ALLOP_NO_SSLv2OP_NO_SSLv3OP_NO_TLSv1OP_NO_TLSv1_1OP_NO_TLSv1_2OP_NO_TLSv1_3OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCEOP_SINGLE_DH_USEOP_SINGLE_ECDH_USEOP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPATOP_NO_COMPRESSIONOptionsOP_NO_TICKETHAS_ALPNHAS_ECDHHAS_SNIHAS_NPNHAS_TLSv1_3CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPESOPENSSL_VERSIONOPENSSL_VERSION_INFOOPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBERALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILUREALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERRORAlertDescriptionPurpose.SERVER_AUTHPurpose.CLIENT_AUTHSSLErrorNumber
- 18.2.2. SSL Sockets
SSLSocketSSLSocket.read()SSLSocket.write()SSLSocket.do_handshake()SSLSocket.getpeercert()SSLSocket.cipher()SSLSocket.shared_ciphers()SSLSocket.compression()SSLSocket.get_channel_binding()SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol()SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol()SSLSocket.unwrap()SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake()SSLSocket.version()SSLSocket.pending()SSLSocket.contextSSLSocket.server_sideSSLSocket.server_hostnameSSLSocket.sessionSSLSocket.session_reused
- 18.2.3. SSL Contexts
SSLContextSSLContext.cert_store_stats()SSLContext.load_cert_chain()SSLContext.load_default_certs()SSLContext.load_verify_locations()SSLContext.get_ca_certs()SSLContext.get_ciphers()SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths()SSLContext.set_ciphers()SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols()SSLContext.set_npn_protocols()SSLContext.set_servername_callback()SSLContext.load_dh_params()SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve()SSLContext.wrap_socket()SSLContext.wrap_bio()SSLContext.session_stats()SSLContext.check_hostnameSSLContext.optionsSSLContext.post_handshake_authSSLContext.protocolSSLContext.verify_flagsSSLContext.verify_mode
- 18.2.4. Certificates
- 18.2.5. Examples
- 18.2.6. Notes on non-blocking sockets
- 18.2.7. Memory BIO Support
- 18.2.8. SSL session
- 18.2.9. Security considerations
- 18.2.10. LibreSSL support
- 18.2.1. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions
- 18.3.
select— Waiting for I/O completion - 18.4.
selectors— High-level I/O multiplexing - 18.5.
asyncio— Asynchronous I/O, event loop, coroutines and tasks- 18.5.1. Base Event Loop
BaseEventLoopAbstractEventLoop- 18.5.1.1. Run an event loop
- 18.5.1.2. Calls
- 18.5.1.3. Delayed calls
- 18.5.1.4. Futures
- 18.5.1.5. Tasks
- 18.5.1.6. Creating connections
- 18.5.1.7. Creating listening connections
- 18.5.1.8. Watch file descriptors
- 18.5.1.9. Low-level socket operations
- 18.5.1.10. Resolve host name
- 18.5.1.11. Connect pipes
- 18.5.1.12. UNIX signals
- 18.5.1.13. Executor
- 18.5.1.14. Error Handling API
- 18.5.1.15. Debug mode
- 18.5.1.16. Server
- 18.5.1.17. Handle
- 18.5.1.18. Event loop examples
- 18.5.2. Event loops
- 18.5.3. Tasks and coroutines
- 18.5.4. Transports and protocols (callback based API)
- 18.5.4.1. Transports
- 18.5.4.2. Protocols
- 18.5.4.3. Protocol examples
- 18.5.5. Streams (coroutine based API)
- 18.5.6. Subprocess
- 18.5.6.1. Windows event loop
- 18.5.6.2. Create a subprocess: high-level API using Process
- 18.5.6.3. Create a subprocess: low-level API using subprocess.Popen
- 18.5.6.4. Constants
- 18.5.6.5. Process
asyncio.subprocess.Processasyncio.subprocess.Process.wait()asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate()asyncio.subprocess.Process.send_signal()asyncio.subprocess.Process.terminate()asyncio.subprocess.Process.kill()asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdinasyncio.subprocess.Process.stdoutasyncio.subprocess.Process.stderrasyncio.subprocess.Process.pidasyncio.subprocess.Process.returncode
- 18.5.6.6. Subprocess and threads
- 18.5.6.7. Subprocess examples
- 18.5.7. Synchronization primitives
- 18.5.8. Queues
- 18.5.9. Develop with asyncio
- 18.5.9.1. Debug mode of asyncio
- 18.5.9.2. Cancellation
- 18.5.9.3. Concurrency and multithreading
- 18.5.9.4. Handle blocking functions correctly
- 18.5.9.5. Logging
- 18.5.9.6. Detect coroutine objects never scheduled
- 18.5.9.7. Detect exceptions never consumed
- 18.5.9.8. Chain coroutines correctly
- 18.5.9.9. Pending task destroyed
- 18.5.9.10. Close transports and event loops
- 18.5.1. Base Event Loop
- 18.6.
asyncore— Asynchronous socket handlerloop()dispatcherdispatcher.handle_read()dispatcher.handle_write()dispatcher.handle_expt()dispatcher.handle_connect()dispatcher.handle_close()dispatcher.handle_error()dispatcher.handle_accept()dispatcher.handle_accepted()dispatcher.readable()dispatcher.writable()dispatcher.create_socket()dispatcher.connect()dispatcher.send()dispatcher.recv()dispatcher.listen()dispatcher.bind()dispatcher.accept()dispatcher.close()
dispatcher_with_sendfile_dispatcherfile_wrapper- 18.6.1. asyncore Example basic HTTP client
- 18.6.2. asyncore Example basic echo server
- 18.7.
asynchat— Asynchronous socket command/response handler - 18.8.
signal— Set handlers for asynchronous events- 18.8.1. General rules
- 18.8.2. Module contents
SIG_DFLSIG_IGNCTRL_C_EVENTCTRL_BREAK_EVENTNSIGITIMER_REALITIMER_VIRTUALITIMER_PROFSIG_BLOCKSIG_UNBLOCKSIG_SETMASKItimerErroralarm()getsignal()pause()pthread_kill()pthread_sigmask()setitimer()getitimer()set_wakeup_fd()siginterrupt()signal()sigpending()sigwait()sigwaitinfo()sigtimedwait()
- 18.8.3. Example
- 18.9.
mmap— Memory-mapped file support
- 18.1.
- 19. Internet Data Handling
- 19.1.
email— An email and MIME handling package- 19.1.1.
email.message: Representing an email messageEmailMessageEmailMessage.as_string()EmailMessage.__str__()EmailMessage.as_bytes()EmailMessage.__bytes__()EmailMessage.is_multipart()EmailMessage.set_unixfrom()EmailMessage.get_unixfrom()EmailMessage.__len__()EmailMessage.__contains__()EmailMessage.__getitem__()EmailMessage.__setitem__()EmailMessage.__delitem__()EmailMessage.keys()EmailMessage.values()EmailMessage.items()EmailMessage.get()EmailMessage.get_all()EmailMessage.add_header()EmailMessage.replace_header()EmailMessage.get_content_type()EmailMessage.get_content_maintype()EmailMessage.get_content_subtype()EmailMessage.get_default_type()EmailMessage.set_default_type()EmailMessage.set_param()EmailMessage.del_param()EmailMessage.get_filename()EmailMessage.get_boundary()EmailMessage.set_boundary()EmailMessage.get_content_charset()EmailMessage.get_charsets()EmailMessage.is_attachment()EmailMessage.get_content_disposition()EmailMessage.walk()EmailMessage.get_body()EmailMessage.iter_attachments()EmailMessage.iter_parts()EmailMessage.get_content()EmailMessage.set_content()EmailMessage.make_related()EmailMessage.make_alternative()EmailMessage.make_mixed()EmailMessage.add_related()EmailMessage.add_alternative()EmailMessage.add_attachment()EmailMessage.clear()EmailMessage.clear_content()EmailMessage.preambleEmailMessage.epilogueEmailMessage.defects
MIMEPart
- 19.1.2.
email.parser: Parsing email messages - 19.1.3.
email.generator: Generating MIME documents - 19.1.4.
email.policy: Policy ObjectsPolicyPolicy.max_line_lengthPolicy.linesepPolicy.cte_typePolicy.raise_on_defectPolicy.message_factoryPolicy.clone()Policy.handle_defect()Policy.register_defect()Policy.header_max_count()Policy.header_source_parse()Policy.header_store_parse()Policy.header_fetch_parse()Policy.fold()Policy.fold_binary()
EmailPolicydefaultSMTPSMTPUTF8HTTPstrictCompat32compat32
- 19.1.5.
email.errors: Exception and Defect classes - 19.1.6.
email.headerregistry: Custom Header Objects - 19.1.7.
email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content - 19.1.8.
email: Examples - 19.1.9.
email.message.Message: Representing an email message using thecompat32APIMessageMessage.as_string()Message.__str__()Message.as_bytes()Message.__bytes__()Message.is_multipart()Message.set_unixfrom()Message.get_unixfrom()Message.attach()Message.get_payload()Message.set_payload()Message.set_charset()Message.get_charset()Message.__len__()Message.__contains__()Message.__getitem__()Message.__setitem__()Message.__delitem__()Message.keys()Message.values()Message.items()Message.get()Message.get_all()Message.add_header()Message.replace_header()Message.get_content_type()Message.get_content_maintype()Message.get_content_subtype()Message.get_default_type()Message.set_default_type()Message.get_params()Message.get_param()Message.set_param()Message.del_param()Message.set_type()Message.get_filename()Message.get_boundary()Message.set_boundary()Message.get_content_charset()Message.get_charsets()Message.get_content_disposition()Message.walk()Message.preambleMessage.epilogueMessage.defects
- 19.1.10.
email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch - 19.1.11.
email.header: Internationalized headers - 19.1.12.
email.charset: Representing character setsCharsetCharset.input_charsetCharset.header_encodingCharset.body_encodingCharset.output_charsetCharset.input_codecCharset.output_codecCharset.get_body_encoding()Charset.get_output_charset()Charset.header_encode()Charset.header_encode_lines()Charset.body_encode()Charset.__str__()Charset.__eq__()Charset.__ne__()
add_charset()add_alias()add_codec()
- 19.1.13.
email.encoders: Encoders - 19.1.14.
email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities - 19.1.15.
email.iterators: Iterators
- 19.1.1.
- 19.2.
json— JSON encoder and decoder - 19.3.
mailcap— Mailcap file handling - 19.4.
mailbox— Manipulate mailboxes in various formats- 19.4.1.
MailboxobjectsMailboxMailbox.add()Mailbox.remove()Mailbox.__delitem__()Mailbox.discard()Mailbox.__setitem__()Mailbox.iterkeys()Mailbox.keys()Mailbox.itervalues()Mailbox.__iter__()Mailbox.values()Mailbox.iteritems()Mailbox.items()Mailbox.get()Mailbox.__getitem__()Mailbox.get_message()Mailbox.get_bytes()Mailbox.get_string()Mailbox.get_file()Mailbox.__contains__()Mailbox.__len__()Mailbox.clear()Mailbox.pop()Mailbox.popitem()Mailbox.update()Mailbox.flush()Mailbox.lock()Mailbox.unlock()Mailbox.close()
- 19.4.1.1.
Maildir - 19.4.1.2.
mbox - 19.4.1.3.
MH - 19.4.1.4.
Babyl - 19.4.1.5.
MMDF
- 19.4.2.
Messageobjects - 19.4.3. Exceptions
- 19.4.4. Examples
- 19.4.1.
- 19.5.
mimetypes— Map filenames to MIME types - 19.6.
base64— Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings - 19.7.
binhex— Encode and decode binhex4 files - 19.8.
binascii— Convert between binary and ASCII - 19.9.
quopri— Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data - 19.10.
uu— Encode and decode uuencode files
- 19.1.
- 20. Structured Markup Processing Tools
- 20.1.
html— HyperText Markup Language support - 20.2.
html.parser— Simple HTML and XHTML parserHTMLParser- 20.2.1. Example HTML Parser Application
- 20.2.2.
HTMLParserMethodsHTMLParser.feed()HTMLParser.close()HTMLParser.reset()HTMLParser.getpos()HTMLParser.get_starttag_text()HTMLParser.handle_starttag()HTMLParser.handle_endtag()HTMLParser.handle_startendtag()HTMLParser.handle_data()HTMLParser.handle_entityref()HTMLParser.handle_charref()HTMLParser.handle_comment()HTMLParser.handle_decl()HTMLParser.handle_pi()HTMLParser.unknown_decl()
- 20.2.3. Examples
- 20.3.
html.entities— Definitions of HTML general entities - 20.4. XML Processing Modules
- 20.5.
xml.etree.ElementTree— The ElementTree XML API- 20.5.1. Tutorial
- 20.5.2. XPath support
- 20.5.3. Reference
- 20.5.3.1. Functions
- 20.5.3.2. Element Objects
ElementElement.tagElement.textElement.tailElement.attribElement.clear()Element.get()Element.items()Element.keys()Element.set()Element.append()Element.extend()Element.find()Element.findall()Element.findtext()Element.getchildren()Element.getiterator()Element.insert()Element.iter()Element.iterfind()Element.itertext()Element.makeelement()Element.remove()
- 20.5.3.3. ElementTree Objects
- 20.5.3.4. QName Objects
- 20.5.3.5. TreeBuilder Objects
- 20.5.3.6. XMLParser Objects
- 20.5.3.7. XMLPullParser Objects
- 20.5.3.8. Exceptions
- 20.6.
xml.dom— The Document Object Model API- 20.6.1. Module Contents
- 20.6.2. Objects in the DOM
- 20.6.2.1. DOMImplementation Objects
- 20.6.2.2. Node Objects
Node.nodeTypeNode.parentNodeNode.attributesNode.previousSiblingNode.nextSiblingNode.childNodesNode.firstChildNode.lastChildNode.localNameNode.prefixNode.namespaceURINode.nodeNameNode.nodeValueNode.hasAttributes()Node.hasChildNodes()Node.isSameNode()Node.appendChild()Node.insertBefore()Node.removeChild()Node.replaceChild()Node.normalize()Node.cloneNode()
- 20.6.2.3. NodeList Objects
- 20.6.2.4. DocumentType Objects
- 20.6.2.5. Document Objects
- 20.6.2.6. Element Objects
Element.tagNameElement.getElementsByTagName()Element.getElementsByTagNameNS()Element.hasAttribute()Element.hasAttributeNS()Element.getAttribute()Element.getAttributeNode()Element.getAttributeNS()Element.getAttributeNodeNS()Element.removeAttribute()Element.removeAttributeNode()Element.removeAttributeNS()Element.setAttribute()Element.setAttributeNode()Element.setAttributeNodeNS()Element.setAttributeNS()
- 20.6.2.7. Attr Objects
- 20.6.2.8. NamedNodeMap Objects
- 20.6.2.9. Comment Objects
- 20.6.2.10. Text and CDATASection Objects
- 20.6.2.11. ProcessingInstruction Objects
- 20.6.2.12. Exceptions
- 20.6.3. Conformance
- 20.7.
xml.dom.minidom— Minimal DOM implementation - 20.8.
xml.dom.pulldom— Support for building partial DOM trees - 20.9.
xml.sax— Support for SAX2 parsers - 20.10.
xml.sax.handler— Base classes for SAX handlersContentHandlerDTDHandlerEntityResolverErrorHandlerfeature_namespacesfeature_namespace_prefixesfeature_string_interningfeature_validationfeature_external_gesfeature_external_pesall_featuresproperty_lexical_handlerproperty_declaration_handlerproperty_dom_nodeproperty_xml_stringall_properties- 20.10.1. ContentHandler Objects
ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator()ContentHandler.startDocument()ContentHandler.endDocument()ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping()ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping()ContentHandler.startElement()ContentHandler.endElement()ContentHandler.startElementNS()ContentHandler.endElementNS()ContentHandler.characters()ContentHandler.ignorableWhitespace()ContentHandler.processingInstruction()ContentHandler.skippedEntity()
- 20.10.2. DTDHandler Objects
- 20.10.3. EntityResolver Objects
- 20.10.4. ErrorHandler Objects
- 20.11.
xml.sax.saxutils— SAX Utilities - 20.12.
xml.sax.xmlreader— Interface for XML parsersXMLReaderIncrementalParserLocatorInputSourceAttributesImplAttributesNSImpl- 20.12.1. XMLReader Objects
XMLReader.parse()XMLReader.getContentHandler()XMLReader.setContentHandler()XMLReader.getDTDHandler()XMLReader.setDTDHandler()XMLReader.getEntityResolver()XMLReader.setEntityResolver()XMLReader.getErrorHandler()XMLReader.setErrorHandler()XMLReader.setLocale()XMLReader.getFeature()XMLReader.setFeature()XMLReader.getProperty()XMLReader.setProperty()
- 20.12.2. IncrementalParser Objects
- 20.12.3. Locator Objects
- 20.12.4. InputSource Objects
- 20.12.5. The
AttributesInterface - 20.12.6. The
AttributesNSInterface
- 20.13.
xml.parsers.expat— Fast XML parsing using ExpatExpatErrorerrorXMLParserTypeErrorString()ParserCreate()- 20.13.1. XMLParser Objects
xmlparser.Parse()xmlparser.ParseFile()xmlparser.SetBase()xmlparser.GetBase()xmlparser.GetInputContext()xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate()xmlparser.SetParamEntityParsing()xmlparser.UseForeignDTD()xmlparser.buffer_sizexmlparser.buffer_textxmlparser.buffer_usedxmlparser.ordered_attributesxmlparser.specified_attributesxmlparser.ErrorByteIndexxmlparser.ErrorCodexmlparser.ErrorColumnNumberxmlparser.ErrorLineNumberxmlparser.CurrentByteIndexxmlparser.CurrentColumnNumberxmlparser.CurrentLineNumberxmlparser.XmlDeclHandler()xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler()xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler()xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler()xmlparser.AttlistDeclHandler()xmlparser.StartElementHandler()xmlparser.EndElementHandler()xmlparser.ProcessingInstructionHandler()xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler()xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler()xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler()xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler()xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler()xmlparser.EndNamespaceDeclHandler()xmlparser.CommentHandler()xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler()xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler()xmlparser.DefaultHandler()xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand()xmlparser.NotStandaloneHandler()xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler()
- 20.13.2. ExpatError Exceptions
- 20.13.3. Example
- 20.13.4. Content Model Descriptions
- 20.13.5. Expat error constants
codesmessagesXML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITYXML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REFXML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REFXML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REFXML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTEXML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODINGXML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKENXML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENTXML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PIXML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTSXML_ERROR_NO_MEMORYXML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REFXML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHARXML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REFXML_ERROR_SYNTAXXML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCHXML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKENXML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITYXML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODINGXML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTIONXML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLINGXML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONEXML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATEXML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PEXML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTDXML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSINGXML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIXXML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIXXML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PEXML_ERROR_XML_DECLXML_ERROR_TEXT_DECLXML_ERROR_PUBLICIDXML_ERROR_SUSPENDEDXML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDEDXML_ERROR_ABORTEDXML_ERROR_FINISHEDXML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE
- 20.1.
- 21. Internet Protocols and Support
- 21.1.
webbrowser— Convenient Web-browser controller - 21.2.
cgi— Common Gateway Interface support - 21.3.
cgitb— Traceback manager for CGI scripts - 21.4.
wsgiref— WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation- 21.4.1.
wsgiref.util– WSGI environment utilities - 21.4.2.
wsgiref.headers– WSGI response header tools - 21.4.3.
wsgiref.simple_server– a simple WSGI HTTP server - 21.4.4.
wsgiref.validate— WSGI conformance checker - 21.4.5.
wsgiref.handlers– server/gateway base classesCGIHandlerIISCGIHandlerBaseCGIHandlerSimpleHandlerBaseHandlerBaseHandler.run()BaseHandler._write()BaseHandler._flush()BaseHandler.get_stdin()BaseHandler.get_stderr()BaseHandler.add_cgi_vars()BaseHandler.wsgi_multithreadBaseHandler.wsgi_multiprocessBaseHandler.wsgi_run_onceBaseHandler.os_environBaseHandler.server_softwareBaseHandler.get_scheme()BaseHandler.setup_environ()BaseHandler.log_exception()BaseHandler.traceback_limitBaseHandler.error_output()BaseHandler.error_statusBaseHandler.error_headersBaseHandler.error_bodyBaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapperBaseHandler.sendfile()BaseHandler.origin_serverBaseHandler.http_version
read_environ()
- 21.4.6. Examples
- 21.4.1.
- 21.5.
urllib— URL handling modules - 21.6.
urllib.request— Extensible library for opening URLsurlopen()install_opener()build_opener()pathname2url()url2pathname()getproxies()RequestOpenerDirectorBaseHandlerHTTPDefaultErrorHandlerHTTPRedirectHandlerHTTPCookieProcessorProxyHandlerHTTPPasswordMgrHTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealmHTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuthAbstractBasicAuthHandlerHTTPBasicAuthHandlerProxyBasicAuthHandlerAbstractDigestAuthHandlerHTTPDigestAuthHandlerProxyDigestAuthHandlerHTTPHandlerHTTPSHandlerFileHandlerDataHandlerFTPHandlerCacheFTPHandlerUnknownHandlerHTTPErrorProcessor- 21.6.1. Request Objects
Request.full_urlRequest.typeRequest.hostRequest.origin_req_hostRequest.selectorRequest.dataRequest.unverifiableRequest.methodRequest.get_method()Request.add_header()Request.add_unredirected_header()Request.has_header()Request.remove_header()Request.get_full_url()Request.set_proxy()Request.get_header()Request.header_items()
- 21.6.2. OpenerDirector Objects
- 21.6.3. BaseHandler Objects
- 21.6.4. HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
- 21.6.5. HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
- 21.6.6. ProxyHandler Objects
- 21.6.7. HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
- 21.6.8. HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects
- 21.6.9. AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
- 21.6.10. HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
- 21.6.11. ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
- 21.6.12. AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
- 21.6.13. HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
- 21.6.14. ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
- 21.6.15. HTTPHandler Objects
- 21.6.16. HTTPSHandler Objects
- 21.6.17. FileHandler Objects
- 21.6.18. DataHandler Objects
- 21.6.19. FTPHandler Objects
- 21.6.20. CacheFTPHandler Objects
- 21.6.21. UnknownHandler Objects
- 21.6.22. HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
- 21.6.23. Examples
- 21.6.24. Legacy interface
- 21.6.25.
urllib.requestRestrictions
- 21.7.
urllib.response— Response classes used by urllib - 21.8.
urllib.parse— Parse URLs into components - 21.9.
urllib.error— Exception classes raised by urllib.request - 21.10.
urllib.robotparser— Parser for robots.txt - 21.11.
http— HTTP modules - 21.12.
http.client— HTTP protocol clientHTTPConnectionHTTPSConnectionHTTPResponseHTTPExceptionNotConnectedInvalidURLUnknownProtocolUnknownTransferEncodingUnimplementedFileModeIncompleteReadImproperConnectionStateCannotSendRequestCannotSendHeaderResponseNotReadyBadStatusLineLineTooLongRemoteDisconnectedHTTP_PORTHTTPS_PORTresponses- 21.12.1. HTTPConnection Objects
- 21.12.2. HTTPResponse Objects
- 21.12.3. Examples
- 21.12.4. HTTPMessage Objects
- 21.13.
ftplib— FTP protocol clientFTPFTP_TLSerror_replyerror_temperror_permerror_protoall_errors- 21.13.1. FTP Objects
FTP.set_debuglevel()FTP.connect()FTP.getwelcome()FTP.login()FTP.abort()FTP.sendcmd()FTP.voidcmd()FTP.retrbinary()FTP.retrlines()FTP.set_pasv()FTP.storbinary()FTP.storlines()FTP.transfercmd()FTP.ntransfercmd()FTP.mlsd()FTP.nlst()FTP.dir()FTP.rename()FTP.delete()FTP.cwd()FTP.mkd()FTP.pwd()FTP.rmd()FTP.size()FTP.quit()FTP.close()
- 21.13.2. FTP_TLS Objects
- 21.14.
poplib— POP3 protocol client - 21.15.
imaplib— IMAP4 protocol clientIMAP4IMAP4_SSLIMAP4_streamInternaldate2tuple()Int2AP()ParseFlags()Time2Internaldate()- 21.15.1. IMAP4 Objects
IMAP4.append()IMAP4.authenticate()IMAP4.check()IMAP4.close()IMAP4.copy()IMAP4.create()IMAP4.delete()IMAP4.deleteacl()IMAP4.enable()IMAP4.expunge()IMAP4.fetch()IMAP4.getacl()IMAP4.getannotation()IMAP4.getquota()IMAP4.getquotaroot()IMAP4.list()IMAP4.login()IMAP4.login_cram_md5()IMAP4.logout()IMAP4.lsub()IMAP4.myrights()IMAP4.namespace()IMAP4.noop()IMAP4.open()IMAP4.partial()IMAP4.proxyauth()IMAP4.read()IMAP4.readline()IMAP4.recent()IMAP4.rename()IMAP4.response()IMAP4.search()IMAP4.select()IMAP4.send()IMAP4.setacl()IMAP4.setannotation()IMAP4.setquota()IMAP4.shutdown()IMAP4.socket()IMAP4.sort()IMAP4.starttls()IMAP4.status()IMAP4.store()IMAP4.subscribe()IMAP4.thread()IMAP4.uid()IMAP4.unsubscribe()IMAP4.xatom()IMAP4.PROTOCOL_VERSIONIMAP4.debugIMAP4.utf8_enabled
- 21.15.2. IMAP4 Example
- 21.16.
nntplib— NNTP protocol clientNNTPNNTP_SSLNNTPErrorNNTPReplyErrorNNTPTemporaryErrorNNTPPermanentErrorNNTPProtocolErrorNNTPDataError- 21.16.1. NNTP Objects
- 21.16.1.1. Attributes
- 21.16.1.2. Methods
NNTP.quit()NNTP.getwelcome()NNTP.getcapabilities()NNTP.login()NNTP.starttls()NNTP.newgroups()NNTP.newnews()NNTP.list()NNTP.descriptions()NNTP.description()NNTP.group()NNTP.over()NNTP.help()NNTP.stat()NNTP.next()NNTP.last()NNTP.article()NNTP.head()NNTP.body()NNTP.post()NNTP.ihave()NNTP.date()NNTP.slave()NNTP.set_debuglevel()NNTP.xhdr()NNTP.xover()NNTP.xpath()
- 21.16.2. Utility functions
- 21.17.
smtplib— SMTP protocol client - 21.18.
smtpd— SMTP Server - 21.19.
telnetlib— Telnet clientTelnet- 21.19.1. Telnet Objects
Telnet.read_until()Telnet.read_all()Telnet.read_some()Telnet.read_very_eager()Telnet.read_eager()Telnet.read_lazy()Telnet.read_very_lazy()Telnet.read_sb_data()Telnet.open()Telnet.msg()Telnet.set_debuglevel()Telnet.close()Telnet.get_socket()Telnet.fileno()Telnet.write()Telnet.interact()Telnet.mt_interact()Telnet.expect()Telnet.set_option_negotiation_callback()
- 21.19.2. Telnet Example
- 21.20.
uuid— UUID objects according to RFC 4122 - 21.21.
socketserver— A framework for network serversTCPServerUDPServerUnixStreamServerUnixDatagramServer- 21.21.1. Server Creation Notes
- 21.21.2. Server Objects
BaseServerBaseServer.fileno()BaseServer.handle_request()BaseServer.serve_forever()BaseServer.service_actions()BaseServer.shutdown()BaseServer.server_close()BaseServer.address_familyBaseServer.RequestHandlerClassBaseServer.server_addressBaseServer.socketBaseServer.allow_reuse_addressBaseServer.request_queue_sizeBaseServer.socket_typeBaseServer.timeoutBaseServer.finish_request()BaseServer.get_request()BaseServer.handle_error()BaseServer.handle_timeout()BaseServer.process_request()BaseServer.server_activate()BaseServer.server_bind()BaseServer.verify_request()
- 21.21.3. Request Handler Objects
- 21.21.4. Examples
- 21.22.
http.server— HTTP serversHTTPServerBaseHTTPRequestHandlerBaseHTTPRequestHandler.client_addressBaseHTTPRequestHandler.serverBaseHTTPRequestHandler.close_connectionBaseHTTPRequestHandler.requestlineBaseHTTPRequestHandler.commandBaseHTTPRequestHandler.pathBaseHTTPRequestHandler.request_versionBaseHTTPRequestHandler.headersBaseHTTPRequestHandler.rfileBaseHTTPRequestHandler.wfileBaseHTTPRequestHandler.server_versionBaseHTTPRequestHandler.sys_versionBaseHTTPRequestHandler.error_message_formatBaseHTTPRequestHandler.error_content_typeBaseHTTPRequestHandler.protocol_versionBaseHTTPRequestHandler.MessageClassBaseHTTPRequestHandler.responsesBaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_one_request()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle_expect_100()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_header()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response_only()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.end_headers()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.flush_headers()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_request()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_error()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.version_string()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.date_time_string()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_date_time_string()BaseHTTPRequestHandler.address_string()
SimpleHTTPRequestHandlerCGIHTTPRequestHandler
- 21.23.
http.cookies— HTTP state management - 21.24.
http.cookiejar— Cookie handling for HTTP clientsLoadErrorCookieJarFileCookieJarCookiePolicyDefaultCookiePolicyCookie- 21.24.1. CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects
CookieJar.add_cookie_header()CookieJar.extract_cookies()CookieJar.set_policy()CookieJar.make_cookies()CookieJar.set_cookie_if_ok()CookieJar.set_cookie()CookieJar.clear()CookieJar.clear_session_cookies()FileCookieJar.save()FileCookieJar.load()FileCookieJar.revert()FileCookieJar.filenameFileCookieJar.delayload
- 21.24.2. FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers
- 21.24.3. CookiePolicy Objects
- 21.24.4. DefaultCookiePolicy Objects
DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains()DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains()DefaultCookiePolicy.is_blocked()DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains()DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains()DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed()DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscapeDefaultCookiePolicy.strict_domainDefaultCookiePolicy.strict_rfc2965_unverifiableDefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_unverifiableDefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domainDefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_initial_dollarDefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_pathDefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDotsDefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomainDefaultCookiePolicy.DomainRFC2965MatchDefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberalDefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrict
- 21.24.5. Cookie Objects
Cookie.versionCookie.nameCookie.valueCookie.portCookie.pathCookie.secureCookie.expiresCookie.discardCookie.commentCookie.comment_urlCookie.rfc2109Cookie.port_specifiedCookie.domain_specifiedCookie.domain_initial_dotCookie.has_nonstandard_attr()Cookie.get_nonstandard_attr()Cookie.set_nonstandard_attr()Cookie.is_expired()
- 21.24.6. Examples
- 21.25.
xmlrpc— XMLRPC server and client modules - 21.26.
xmlrpc.client— XML-RPC client access - 21.27.
xmlrpc.server— Basic XML-RPC servers - 21.28.
ipaddress— IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library- 21.28.1. Convenience factory functions
- 21.28.2. IP Addresses
- 21.28.2.1. Address objects
IPv4AddressIPv4Address.versionIPv4Address.max_prefixlenIPv4Address.compressedIPv4Address.explodedIPv4Address.packedIPv4Address.reverse_pointerIPv4Address.is_multicastIPv4Address.is_privateIPv4Address.is_globalIPv4Address.is_unspecifiedIPv4Address.is_reservedIPv4Address.is_loopbackIPv4Address.is_link_local
IPv6AddressIPv6Address.compressedIPv6Address.explodedIPv6Address.packedIPv6Address.reverse_pointerIPv6Address.versionIPv6Address.max_prefixlenIPv6Address.is_multicastIPv6Address.is_privateIPv6Address.is_globalIPv6Address.is_unspecifiedIPv6Address.is_reservedIPv6Address.is_loopbackIPv6Address.is_link_localIPv6Address.is_site_localIPv6Address.ipv4_mappedIPv6Address.sixtofourIPv6Address.teredo
- 21.28.2.2. Conversion to Strings and Integers
- 21.28.2.3. Operators
- 21.28.2.1. Address objects
- 21.28.3. IP Network definitions
- 21.28.3.1. Prefix, net mask and host mask
- 21.28.3.2. Network objects
IPv4NetworkIPv4Network.versionIPv4Network.max_prefixlenIPv4Network.is_multicastIPv4Network.is_privateIPv4Network.is_unspecifiedIPv4Network.is_reservedIPv4Network.is_loopbackIPv4Network.is_link_localIPv4Network.network_addressIPv4Network.broadcast_addressIPv4Network.hostmaskIPv4Network.netmaskIPv4Network.with_prefixlenIPv4Network.compressedIPv4Network.explodedIPv4Network.with_netmaskIPv4Network.with_hostmaskIPv4Network.num_addressesIPv4Network.prefixlenIPv4Network.hosts()IPv4Network.overlaps()IPv4Network.address_exclude()IPv4Network.subnets()IPv4Network.supernet()IPv4Network.compare_networks()
IPv6NetworkIPv6Network.versionIPv6Network.max_prefixlenIPv6Network.is_multicastIPv6Network.is_privateIPv6Network.is_unspecifiedIPv6Network.is_reservedIPv6Network.is_loopbackIPv6Network.is_link_localIPv6Network.network_addressIPv6Network.broadcast_addressIPv6Network.hostmaskIPv6Network.netmaskIPv6Network.with_prefixlenIPv6Network.compressedIPv6Network.explodedIPv6Network.with_netmaskIPv6Network.with_hostmaskIPv6Network.num_addressesIPv6Network.prefixlenIPv6Network.hosts()IPv6Network.overlaps()IPv6Network.address_exclude()IPv6Network.subnets()IPv6Network.supernet()IPv6Network.compare_networks()IPv6Network.is_site_local
- 21.28.3.3. Operators
- 21.28.4. Interface objects
- 21.28.5. Other Module Level Functions
- 21.28.6. Custom Exceptions
- 21.1.
- 22. Multimedia Services
- 22.1.
audioop— Manipulate raw audio data - 22.2.
aifc— Read and write AIFF and AIFC filesopen()aifc.getnchannels()aifc.getsampwidth()aifc.getframerate()aifc.getnframes()aifc.getcomptype()aifc.getcompname()aifc.getparams()aifc.getmarkers()aifc.getmark()aifc.readframes()aifc.rewind()aifc.setpos()aifc.tell()aifc.close()aifc.aiff()aifc.aifc()aifc.setnchannels()aifc.setsampwidth()aifc.setframerate()aifc.setnframes()aifc.setcomptype()aifc.setparams()aifc.setmark()aifc.tell()aifc.writeframes()aifc.writeframesraw()aifc.close()
- 22.3.
sunau— Read and write Sun AU filesopen()openfp()ErrorAUDIO_FILE_MAGICAUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_8AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_8AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_16AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_24AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_32AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_8AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOATAUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLEAUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G721AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G722AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_3AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_5- 22.3.1. AU_read Objects
- 22.3.2. AU_write Objects
- 22.4.
wave— Read and write WAV filesopen()openfp()Error- 22.4.1. Wave_read Objects
Wave_read.close()Wave_read.getnchannels()Wave_read.getsampwidth()Wave_read.getframerate()Wave_read.getnframes()Wave_read.getcomptype()Wave_read.getcompname()Wave_read.getparams()Wave_read.readframes()Wave_read.rewind()Wave_read.getmarkers()Wave_read.getmark()Wave_read.setpos()Wave_read.tell()
- 22.4.2. Wave_write Objects
- 22.5.
chunk— Read IFF chunked data - 22.6.
colorsys— Conversions between color systems - 22.7.
imghdr— Determine the type of an image - 22.8.
sndhdr— Determine type of sound file - 22.9.
ossaudiodev— Access to OSS-compatible audio devicesOSSAudioErroropen()openmixer()- 22.9.1. Audio Device Objects
oss_audio_device.close()oss_audio_device.fileno()oss_audio_device.read()oss_audio_device.write()oss_audio_device.writeall()oss_audio_device.nonblock()oss_audio_device.getfmts()oss_audio_device.setfmt()oss_audio_device.channels()oss_audio_device.speed()oss_audio_device.sync()oss_audio_device.reset()oss_audio_device.post()oss_audio_device.setparameters()oss_audio_device.bufsize()oss_audio_device.obufcount()oss_audio_device.obuffree()oss_audio_device.closedoss_audio_device.nameoss_audio_device.mode
- 22.9.2. Mixer Device Objects
- 22.1.
- 23. Internationalization
- 23.1.
gettext— Multilingual internationalization services- 23.1.1. GNU gettext API
- 23.1.2. Class-based API
find()translation()install()- 23.1.2.1. The
NullTranslationsclassNullTranslationsNullTranslations._parse()NullTranslations.add_fallback()NullTranslations.gettext()NullTranslations.ngettext()NullTranslations.lgettext()NullTranslations.lngettext()NullTranslations.info()NullTranslations.charset()NullTranslations.output_charset()NullTranslations.set_output_charset()NullTranslations.install()
- 23.1.2.2. The
GNUTranslationsclass - 23.1.2.3. Solaris message catalog support
- 23.1.2.4. The Catalog constructor
- 23.1.3. Internationalizing your programs and modules
- 23.1.4. Acknowledgements
- 23.2.
locale— Internationalization servicesErrorsetlocale()localeconv()nl_langinfo()CODESETD_T_FMTD_FMTT_FMTT_FMT_AMPMRADIXCHARTHOUSEPYESEXPRNOEXPRCRNCYSTRERAERA_D_T_FMTERA_D_FMTERA_T_FMTALT_DIGITSgetdefaultlocale()getlocale()getpreferredencoding()normalize()resetlocale()strcoll()strxfrm()format()format_string()currency()str()delocalize()atof()atoi()LC_CTYPELC_COLLATELC_TIMELC_MONETARYLC_MESSAGESLC_NUMERICLC_ALLCHAR_MAX- 23.2.1. Background, details, hints, tips and caveats
- 23.2.2. For extension writers and programs that embed Python
- 23.2.3. Access to message catalogs
- 23.1.
- 24. Program Frameworks
- 24.1.
turtle— Turtle graphics- 24.1.1. Introduction
- 24.1.2. Overview of available Turtle and Screen methods
- 24.1.3. Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions
- 24.1.4. Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions
- 24.1.5. Public classes
- 24.1.6. Help and configuration
- 24.1.7.
turtledemo— Demo scripts - 24.1.8. Changes since Python 2.6
- 24.1.9. Changes since Python 3.0
- 24.2.
cmd— Support for line-oriented command interpreters - 24.3.
shlex— Simple lexical analysissplit()quote()shlex- 24.3.1. shlex Objects
shlex.get_token()shlex.push_token()shlex.read_token()shlex.sourcehook()shlex.push_source()shlex.pop_source()shlex.error_leader()shlex.commentersshlex.wordcharsshlex.whitespaceshlex.escapeshlex.quotesshlex.escapedquotesshlex.whitespace_splitshlex.infileshlex.instreamshlex.sourceshlex.debugshlex.linenoshlex.tokenshlex.eofshlex.punctuation_chars
- 24.3.2. Parsing Rules
- 24.3.3. Improved Compatibility with Shells
- 24.1.
- 25. Graphical User Interfaces with Tk
- 25.1.
tkinter— Python interface to Tcl/Tk - 25.2.
tkinter.ttk— Tk themed widgets- 25.2.1. Using Ttk
- 25.2.2. Ttk Widgets
- 25.2.3. Widget
- 25.2.4. Combobox
- 25.2.5. Notebook
- 25.2.6. Progressbar
- 25.2.7. Separator
- 25.2.8. Sizegrip
- 25.2.9. Treeview
- 25.2.9.1. Options
- 25.2.9.2. Item Options
- 25.2.9.3. Tag Options
- 25.2.9.4. Column Identifiers
- 25.2.9.5. Virtual Events
- 25.2.9.6. ttk.Treeview
TreeviewTreeview.bbox()Treeview.get_children()Treeview.set_children()Treeview.column()Treeview.delete()Treeview.detach()Treeview.exists()Treeview.focus()Treeview.heading()Treeview.identify()Treeview.identify_row()Treeview.identify_column()Treeview.identify_region()Treeview.identify_element()Treeview.index()Treeview.insert()Treeview.item()Treeview.move()Treeview.next()Treeview.parent()Treeview.prev()Treeview.reattach()Treeview.see()Treeview.selection()Treeview.selection_set()Treeview.selection_add()Treeview.selection_remove()Treeview.selection_toggle()Treeview.set()Treeview.tag_bind()Treeview.tag_configure()Treeview.tag_has()Treeview.xview()Treeview.yview()
- 25.2.10. Ttk Styling
- 25.3.
tkinter.tix— Extension widgets for Tk - 25.4.
tkinter.scrolledtext— Scrolled Text Widget - 25.5. IDLE
- 25.5.1. Menus
- 25.5.1.1. File menu (Shell and Editor)
- 25.5.1.2. Edit menu (Shell and Editor)
- 25.5.1.3. Format menu (Editor window only)
- 25.5.1.4. Run menu (Editor window only)
- 25.5.1.5. Shell menu (Shell window only)
- 25.5.1.6. Debug menu (Shell window only)
- 25.5.1.7. Options menu (Shell and Editor)
- 25.5.1.8. Window menu (Shell and Editor)
- 25.5.1.9. Help menu (Shell and Editor)
- 25.5.1.10. Context Menus
- 25.5.2. Editing and navigation
- 25.5.3. Startup and code execution
- 25.5.4. Help and preferences
- 25.5.1. Menus
- 25.6. Other Graphical User Interface Packages
- 25.1.
- 26. Development Tools
- 26.1.
typing— Support for type hints- 26.1.1. Type aliases
- 26.1.2. NewType
- 26.1.3. Callable
- 26.1.4. Generics
- 26.1.5. User-defined generic types
- 26.1.6. The
Anytype - 26.1.7. Classes, functions, and decorators
TypeVarGenericTypeIterableIteratorReversibleSupportsIntSupportsFloatSupportsComplexSupportsBytesSupportsAbsSupportsRoundContainerHashableSizedCollectionAbstractSetMutableSetMappingMutableMappingSequenceMutableSequenceByteStringDequeListSetFrozenSetMappingViewKeysViewItemsViewValuesViewAwaitableCoroutineAsyncIterableAsyncIteratorContextManagerAsyncContextManagerDictDefaultDictCounterChainMapGeneratorAsyncGeneratorTextIOTextIOBinaryIOPatternMatchNamedTupleNewType()cast()get_type_hints()overload()no_type_check()no_type_check_decorator()AnyNoReturnUnionOptionalTupleCallableClassVarAnyStrTYPE_CHECKING
- 26.2.
pydoc— Documentation generator and online help system - 26.3.
doctest— Test interactive Python examples- 26.3.1. Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings
- 26.3.2. Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File
- 26.3.3. How It Works
- 26.3.4. Basic API
- 26.3.5. Unittest API
- 26.3.6. Advanced API
- 26.3.7. Debugging
- 26.3.8. Soapbox
- 26.4.
unittest— Unit testing framework- 26.4.1. Basic example
- 26.4.2. Command-Line Interface
- 26.4.3. Test Discovery
- 26.4.4. Organizing test code
- 26.4.5. Re-using old test code
- 26.4.6. Skipping tests and expected failures
- 26.4.7. Distinguishing test iterations using subtests
- 26.4.8. Classes and functions
- 26.4.8.1. Test cases
TestCaseTestCase.setUp()TestCase.tearDown()TestCase.setUpClass()TestCase.tearDownClass()TestCase.run()TestCase.skipTest()TestCase.subTest()TestCase.debug()TestCase.assertEqual()TestCase.assertNotEqual()TestCase.assertTrue()TestCase.assertFalse()TestCase.assertIs()TestCase.assertIsNot()TestCase.assertIsNone()TestCase.assertIsNotNone()TestCase.assertIn()TestCase.assertNotIn()TestCase.assertIsInstance()TestCase.assertNotIsInstance()TestCase.assertRaises()TestCase.assertRaisesRegex()TestCase.assertWarns()TestCase.assertWarnsRegex()TestCase.assertLogs()TestCase.recordsTestCase.outputTestCase.assertAlmostEqual()TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual()TestCase.assertGreater()TestCase.assertGreaterEqual()TestCase.assertLess()TestCase.assertLessEqual()TestCase.assertRegex()TestCase.assertNotRegex()TestCase.assertCountEqual()TestCase.addTypeEqualityFunc()TestCase.assertMultiLineEqual()TestCase.assertSequenceEqual()TestCase.assertListEqual()TestCase.assertTupleEqual()TestCase.assertSetEqual()TestCase.assertDictEqual()TestCase.fail()TestCase.failureExceptionTestCase.longMessageTestCase.maxDiffTestCase.countTestCases()TestCase.defaultTestResult()TestCase.id()TestCase.shortDescription()TestCase.addCleanup()TestCase.doCleanups()
FunctionTestCase- 26.4.8.1.1. Deprecated aliases
- 26.4.8.2. Grouping tests
- 26.4.8.3. Loading and running tests
TestLoaderTestResultTestResult.errorsTestResult.failuresTestResult.skippedTestResult.expectedFailuresTestResult.unexpectedSuccessesTestResult.shouldStopTestResult.testsRunTestResult.bufferTestResult.failfastTestResult.tb_localsTestResult.wasSuccessful()TestResult.stop()TestResult.startTest()TestResult.stopTest()TestResult.startTestRun()TestResult.stopTestRun()TestResult.addError()TestResult.addFailure()TestResult.addSuccess()TestResult.addSkip()TestResult.addExpectedFailure()TestResult.addUnexpectedSuccess()TestResult.addSubTest()
TextTestResultdefaultTestLoaderTextTestRunnermain()- 26.4.8.3.1. load_tests Protocol
- 26.4.8.1. Test cases
- 26.4.9. Class and Module Fixtures
- 26.4.10. Signal Handling
- 26.5.
unittest.mock— mock object library- 26.5.1. Quick Guide
- 26.5.2. The Mock Class
MockMock.assert_called()Mock.assert_called_once()Mock.assert_called_with()Mock.assert_called_once_with()Mock.assert_any_call()Mock.assert_has_calls()Mock.assert_not_called()Mock.reset_mock()Mock.mock_add_spec()Mock.attach_mock()Mock.configure_mock()Mock.__dir__()Mock._get_child_mock()Mock.calledMock.call_countMock.return_valueMock.side_effectMock.call_argsMock.call_args_listMock.method_callsMock.mock_callsMock.__class__
NonCallableMockPropertyMock- 26.5.2.1. Calling
- 26.5.2.2. Deleting Attributes
- 26.5.2.3. Mock names and the name attribute
- 26.5.2.4. Attaching Mocks as Attributes
- 26.5.3. The patchers
- 26.5.4. MagicMock and magic method support
- 26.5.5. Helpers
- 26.6.
unittest.mock— getting started- 26.6.1. Using Mock
- 26.6.1.1. Mock Patching Methods
- 26.6.1.2. Mock for Method Calls on an Object
- 26.6.1.3. Mocking Classes
- 26.6.1.4. Naming your mocks
- 26.6.1.5. Tracking all Calls
- 26.6.1.6. Setting Return Values and Attributes
- 26.6.1.7. Raising exceptions with mocks
- 26.6.1.8. Side effect functions and iterables
- 26.6.1.9. Creating a Mock from an Existing Object
- 26.6.2. Patch Decorators
- 26.6.3. Further Examples
- 26.6.3.1. Mocking chained calls
- 26.6.3.2. Partial mocking
- 26.6.3.3. Mocking a Generator Method
- 26.6.3.4. Applying the same patch to every test method
- 26.6.3.5. Mocking Unbound Methods
- 26.6.3.6. Checking multiple calls with mock
- 26.6.3.7. Coping with mutable arguments
- 26.6.3.8. Nesting Patches
- 26.6.3.9. Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock
- 26.6.3.10. Mock subclasses and their attributes
- 26.6.3.11. Mocking imports with patch.dict
- 26.6.3.12. Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions
- 26.6.3.13. More complex argument matching
- 26.6.1. Using Mock
- 26.7. 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation
- 26.8.
test— Regression tests package for Python - 26.9.
test.support— Utilities for the Python test suiteTestFailedResourceDeniedverboseis_jythonTESTFNforget()is_resource_enabled()requires()findfile()run_unittest()run_doctest()check_warnings()captured_stdin()captured_stdout()captured_stderr()temp_dir()change_cwd()temp_cwd()temp_umask()can_symlink()skip_unless_symlink()anticipate_failure()run_with_locale()make_bad_fd()import_module()import_fresh_module()bind_port()find_unused_port()load_package_tests()detect_api_mismatch()check__all__()adjust_int_max_str_digits()TransientResourceEnvironmentVarGuardSuppressCrashReportWarningsRecorderFakePath
- 26.1.
- 27. Debugging and Profiling
- 27.1.
bdb— Debugger frameworkBdbQuitBreakpointBdbBdb.canonic()Bdb.reset()Bdb.trace_dispatch()Bdb.dispatch_line()Bdb.dispatch_call()Bdb.dispatch_return()Bdb.dispatch_exception()Bdb.stop_here()Bdb.break_here()Bdb.break_anywhere()Bdb.user_call()Bdb.user_line()Bdb.user_return()Bdb.user_exception()Bdb.do_clear()Bdb.set_step()Bdb.set_next()Bdb.set_return()Bdb.set_until()Bdb.set_trace()Bdb.set_continue()Bdb.set_quit()Bdb.set_break()Bdb.clear_break()Bdb.clear_bpbynumber()Bdb.clear_all_file_breaks()Bdb.clear_all_breaks()Bdb.get_bpbynumber()Bdb.get_break()Bdb.get_breaks()Bdb.get_file_breaks()Bdb.get_all_breaks()Bdb.get_stack()Bdb.format_stack_entry()Bdb.run()Bdb.runeval()Bdb.runctx()Bdb.runcall()
checkfuncname()effective()set_trace()
- 27.2.
faulthandler— Dump the Python traceback - 27.3.
pdb— The Python Debugger - 27.4. The Python Profilers
- 27.5.
timeit— Measure execution time of small code snippets - 27.6.
trace— Trace or track Python statement execution - 27.7.
tracemalloc— Trace memory allocations
- 27.1.
- 28. Software Packaging and Distribution
- 28.1.
distutils— Building and installing Python modules - 28.2.
ensurepip— Bootstrapping thepipinstaller - 28.3.
venv— Creation of virtual environments - 28.4.
zipapp— Manage executable python zip archives
- 28.1.
- 29. Python Runtime Services
- 29.1.
sys— System-specific parameters and functionsabiflagsargvbase_exec_prefixbase_prefixbyteorderbuiltin_module_namescall_tracing()copyright_clear_type_cache()_current_frames()_debugmallocstats()dllhandledisplayhook()dont_write_bytecodeexcepthook()__displayhook____excepthook__exc_info()exec_prefixexecutableexit()flagsfloat_infofloat_repr_stylegetallocatedblocks()getcheckinterval()getdefaultencoding()getdlopenflags()getfilesystemencoding()getfilesystemencodeerrors()get_int_max_str_digits()getrefcount()getrecursionlimit()getsizeof()getswitchinterval()_getframe()getprofile()gettrace()getwindowsversion()get_asyncgen_hooks()get_coroutine_wrapper()hash_infohexversionimplementationint_info__interactivehook__intern()is_finalizing()last_typelast_valuelast_tracebackmaxsizemaxunicodemeta_pathmodulespathpath_hookspath_importer_cacheplatformprefixps1ps2setcheckinterval()setdlopenflags()set_int_max_str_digits()setprofile()setrecursionlimit()setswitchinterval()settrace()set_asyncgen_hooks()set_coroutine_wrapper()_enablelegacywindowsfsencoding()stdinstdoutstderr__stdin____stdout____stderr__thread_infotracebacklimitversionapi_versionversion_infowarnoptionswinver_xoptions
- 29.2.
sysconfig— Provide access to Python’s configuration information - 29.3.
builtins— Built-in objects - 29.4.
__main__— Top-level script environment - 29.5.
warnings— Warning control - 29.6.
contextlib— Utilities forwith-statement contexts- 29.6.1. Utilities
- 29.6.2. Examples and Recipes
- 29.6.2.1. Supporting a variable number of context managers
- 29.6.2.2. Simplifying support for single optional context managers
- 29.6.2.3. Catching exceptions from
__enter__methods - 29.6.2.4. Cleaning up in an
__enter__implementation - 29.6.2.5. Replacing any use of
try-finallyand flag variables - 29.6.2.6. Using a context manager as a function decorator
- 29.6.3. Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers
- 29.7.
abc— Abstract Base Classes - 29.8.
atexit— Exit handlers - 29.9.
traceback— Print or retrieve a stack tracebackprint_tb()print_exception()print_exc()print_last()print_stack()extract_tb()extract_stack()format_list()format_exception_only()format_exception()format_exc()format_tb()format_stack()clear_frames()walk_stack()walk_tb()- 29.9.1.
TracebackExceptionObjectsTracebackExceptionTracebackException.__cause__TracebackException.__context__TracebackException.__suppress_context__TracebackException.stackTracebackException.exc_typeTracebackException.filenameTracebackException.linenoTracebackException.textTracebackException.offsetTracebackException.msgTracebackException.from_exception()TracebackException.format()TracebackException.format_exception_only()
- 29.9.2.
StackSummaryObjects - 29.9.3.
FrameSummaryObjects - 29.9.4. Traceback Examples
- 29.10.
__future__— Future statement definitions - 29.11.
gc— Garbage Collector interface - 29.12.
inspect— Inspect live objects- 29.12.1. Types and members
getmembers()getmodulename()ismodule()isclass()ismethod()isfunction()isgeneratorfunction()isgenerator()iscoroutinefunction()iscoroutine()isawaitable()isasyncgenfunction()isasyncgen()istraceback()isframe()iscode()isbuiltin()isroutine()isabstract()ismethoddescriptor()isdatadescriptor()isgetsetdescriptor()ismemberdescriptor()
- 29.12.2. Retrieving source code
- 29.12.3. Introspecting callables with the Signature object
- 29.12.4. Classes and functions
- 29.12.5. The interpreter stack
- 29.12.6. Fetching attributes statically
- 29.12.7. Current State of Generators and Coroutines
- 29.12.8. Code Objects Bit Flags
- 29.12.9. Command Line Interface
- 29.12.1. Types and members
- 29.13.
site— Site-specific configuration hook - 29.14.
fpectl— Floating point exception control
- 29.1.
- 30. Custom Python Interpreters
- 31. Importing Modules
- 31.1.
zipimport— Import modules from Zip archives - 31.2.
pkgutil— Package extension utility - 31.3.
modulefinder— Find modules used by a script - 31.4.
runpy— Locating and executing Python modules - 31.5.
importlib— The implementation ofimport- 31.5.1. Introduction
- 31.5.2. Functions
- 31.5.3.
importlib.abc– Abstract base classes related to import - 31.5.4.
importlib.machinery– Importers and path hooks - 31.5.5.
importlib.util– Utility code for importers - 31.5.6. Examples
- 31.1.
- 32. Python Language Services
- 32.1.
parser— Access Python parse trees - 32.2.
ast— Abstract Syntax Trees - 32.3.
symtable— Access to the compiler’s symbol tables - 32.4.
symbol— Constants used with Python parse trees - 32.5.
token— Constants used with Python parse treestok_nameISTERMINAL()ISNONTERMINAL()ISEOF()ENDMARKERNAMENUMBERSTRINGNEWLINEINDENTDEDENTLPARRPARLSQBRSQBCOLONCOMMASEMIPLUSMINUSSTARSLASHVBARAMPERLESSGREATEREQUALDOTPERCENTLBRACERBRACEEQEQUALNOTEQUALLESSEQUALGREATEREQUALTILDECIRCUMFLEXLEFTSHIFTRIGHTSHIFTDOUBLESTARPLUSEQUALMINEQUALSTAREQUALSLASHEQUALPERCENTEQUALAMPEREQUALVBAREQUALCIRCUMFLEXEQUALLEFTSHIFTEQUALRIGHTSHIFTEQUALDOUBLESTAREQUALDOUBLESLASHDOUBLESLASHEQUALATATEQUALRARROWELLIPSISOPAWAITASYNCERRORTOKENN_TOKENSNT_OFFSET
- 32.6.
keyword— Testing for Python keywords - 32.7.
tokenize— Tokenizer for Python source - 32.8.
tabnanny— Detection of ambiguous indentation - 32.9.
pyclbr— Python class browser support - 32.10.
py_compile— Compile Python source files - 32.11.
compileall— Byte-compile Python libraries - 32.12.
dis— Disassembler for Python bytecode - 32.13.
pickletools— Tools for pickle developers
- 32.1.
- 33. Miscellaneous Services
- 33.1.
formatter— Generic output formatting- 33.1.1. The Formatter Interface
AS_ISformatter.writerformatter.end_paragraph()formatter.add_line_break()formatter.add_hor_rule()formatter.add_flowing_data()formatter.add_literal_data()formatter.add_label_data()formatter.flush_softspace()formatter.push_alignment()formatter.pop_alignment()formatter.push_font()formatter.pop_font()formatter.push_margin()formatter.pop_margin()formatter.push_style()formatter.pop_style()formatter.set_spacing()formatter.assert_line_data()
- 33.1.2. Formatter Implementations
- 33.1.3. The Writer Interface
- 33.1.4. Writer Implementations
- 33.1.1. The Formatter Interface
- 33.1.
- 34. MS Windows Specific Services
- 34.1.
msilib— Read and write Microsoft Installer filesFCICreate()UuidCreate()OpenDatabase()CreateRecord()init_database()add_data()Binaryadd_tables()add_stream()gen_uuid()- 34.1.1. Database Objects
- 34.1.2. View Objects
- 34.1.3. Summary Information Objects
- 34.1.4. Record Objects
- 34.1.5. Errors
- 34.1.6. CAB Objects
- 34.1.7. Directory Objects
- 34.1.8. Features
- 34.1.9. GUI classes
- 34.1.10. Precomputed tables
- 34.2.
msvcrt— Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime - 34.3.
winreg— Windows registry access- 34.3.1. Functions
CloseKey()ConnectRegistry()CreateKey()CreateKeyEx()DeleteKey()DeleteKeyEx()DeleteValue()EnumKey()EnumValue()ExpandEnvironmentStrings()FlushKey()LoadKey()OpenKey()OpenKeyEx()QueryInfoKey()QueryValue()QueryValueEx()SaveKey()SetValue()SetValueEx()DisableReflectionKey()EnableReflectionKey()QueryReflectionKey()
- 34.3.2. Constants
- 34.3.3. Registry Handle Objects
- 34.3.1. Functions
- 34.4.
winsound— Sound-playing interface for Windows
- 34.1.
- 35. Unix Specific Services
- 35.1.
posix— The most common POSIX system calls - 35.2.
pwd— The password database - 35.3.
spwd— The shadow password database - 35.4.
grp— The group database - 35.5.
crypt— Function to check Unix passwords - 35.6.
termios— POSIX style tty control - 35.7.
tty— Terminal control functions - 35.8.
pty— Pseudo-terminal utilities - 35.9.
fcntl— Thefcntlandioctlsystem calls - 35.10.
pipes— Interface to shell pipelines - 35.11.
resource— Resource usage informationerror- 35.11.1. Resource Limits
RLIM_INFINITYgetrlimit()setrlimit()prlimit()RLIMIT_CORERLIMIT_CPURLIMIT_FSIZERLIMIT_DATARLIMIT_STACKRLIMIT_RSSRLIMIT_NPROCRLIMIT_NOFILERLIMIT_OFILERLIMIT_MEMLOCKRLIMIT_VMEMRLIMIT_ASRLIMIT_MSGQUEUERLIMIT_NICERLIMIT_RTPRIORLIMIT_RTTIMERLIMIT_SIGPENDINGRLIMIT_SBSIZERLIMIT_SWAPRLIMIT_NPTS
- 35.11.2. Resource Usage
- 35.12.
nis— Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages) - 35.13.
syslog— Unix syslog library routines
- 35.1.
- 36. Superseded Modules
- 36.1.
optparse— Parser for command line options- 36.1.1. Background
- 36.1.2. Tutorial
- 36.1.3. Reference Guide
- 36.1.3.1. Creating the parser
- 36.1.3.2. Populating the parser
- 36.1.3.3. Defining options
- 36.1.3.4. Option attributes
- 36.1.3.5. Standard option actions
- 36.1.3.6. Standard option types
- 36.1.3.7. Parsing arguments
- 36.1.3.8. Querying and manipulating your option parser
- 36.1.3.9. Conflicts between options
- 36.1.3.10. Cleanup
- 36.1.3.11. Other methods
- 36.1.4. Option Callbacks
- 36.1.4.1. Defining a callback option
- 36.1.4.2. How callbacks are called
- 36.1.4.3. Raising errors in a callback
- 36.1.4.4. Callback example 1: trivial callback
- 36.1.4.5. Callback example 2: check option order
- 36.1.4.6. Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
- 36.1.4.7. Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
- 36.1.4.8. Callback example 5: fixed arguments
- 36.1.4.9. Callback example 6: variable arguments
- 36.1.5. Extending
optparse
- 36.2.
imp— Access the import internals
- 36.1.
- 37. Undocumented Modules
- Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter
- Recommended third party tools
- Creating extensions without third party tools
- 1. Extending Python with C or C++
- 1.1. A Simple Example
- 1.2. Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions
- 1.3. Back to the Example
- 1.4. The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function
- 1.5. Compilation and Linkage
- 1.6. Calling Python Functions from C
- 1.7. Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
- 1.8. Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions
- 1.9. Building Arbitrary Values
- 1.10. Reference Counts
- 1.11. Writing Extensions in C++
- 1.12. Providing a C API for an Extension Module
- 2. Defining Extension Types: Tutorial
- 3. Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics
- 4. Building C and C++ Extensions
- 5. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows
- 1. Extending Python with C or C++
- Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application
- Python/C API Reference Manual
- Introduction
- Stable Application Binary Interface
- The Very High Level Layer
- Reference Counting
- Exception Handling
- Utilities
- Abstract Objects Layer
- Concrete Objects Layer
- Fundamental Objects
- Numeric Objects
- Sequence Objects
- Container Objects
- Function Objects
- Other Objects
- Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
- Memory Management
- Object Implementation Support
- Allocating Objects on the Heap
- Common Object Structures
- Type Objects
Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPEPy_TPFLAGS_BASETYPEPy_TPFLAGS_READYPy_TPFLAGS_READYINGPy_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GCPy_TPFLAGS_DEFAULTPy_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASSPy_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASSPy_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASSPy_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASSPy_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASSPy_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASSPy_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASSPy_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASSPy_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE
- Number Object Structures
- Mapping Object Structures
- Sequence Object Structures
- Buffer Object Structures
- Async Object Structures
- Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection
- API and ABI Versioning
- Distributing Python Modules
- Installing Python Modules
- Python HOWTOs
- Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3
- The Short Explanation
- Details
- Drop support for Python 2.6 and older
- Make sure you specify the proper version support in your
setup.pyfile - Have good test coverage
- Learn the differences between Python 2 & 3
- Update your code
- Prevent compatibility regressions
- Check which dependencies block your transition
- Update your
setup.pyfile to denote Python 3 compatibility - Use continuous integration to stay compatible
- Consider using optional static type checking
- Porting Extension Modules to Python 3
- Curses Programming with Python
- Descriptor HowTo Guide
- Functional Programming HOWTO
- Logging HOWTO
- Logging Cookbook
- Using logging in multiple modules
- Logging from multiple threads
- Multiple handlers and formatters
- Logging to multiple destinations
- Configuration server example
- Dealing with handlers that block
- Sending and receiving logging events across a network
- Adding contextual information to your logging output
- Logging to a single file from multiple processes
- Using file rotation
- Use of alternative formatting styles
- Customizing
LogRecord - Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example
- Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example
- An example dictionary-based configuration
- Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
- A more elaborate multiprocessing example
- Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
- Implementing structured logging
- Customizing handlers with
dictConfig() - Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
- Configuring filters with
dictConfig() - Customized exception formatting
- Speaking logging messages
- Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
- Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
- Using a context manager for selective logging
- Regular Expression HOWTO
- Socket Programming HOWTO
- Sorting HOW TO
- Unicode HOWTO
- HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package
- Argparse Tutorial
- An introduction to the ipaddress module
- Argument Clinic How-To
- The Goals Of Argument Clinic
- Basic Concepts And Usage
- Converting Your First Function
- Advanced Topics
- Symbolic default values
- Renaming the C functions and variables generated by Argument Clinic
- Converting functions using PyArg_UnpackTuple
- Optional Groups
- Using real Argument Clinic converters, instead of “legacy converters”
- Py_buffer
- Advanced converters
- Parameter default values
- The
NULLdefault value - Expressions specified as default values
- Using a return converter
- Cloning existing functions
- Calling Python code
- Using a “self converter”
- Writing a custom converter
- Writing a custom return converter
- METH_O and METH_NOARGS
- tp_new and tp_init functions
- Changing and redirecting Clinic’s output
- The #ifdef trick
- Using Argument Clinic in Python files
- Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap
- Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3
- Python Frequently Asked Questions
- General Python FAQ
- Programming FAQ
- Design and History FAQ
- Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?
- Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?
- Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?
- Why are Python strings immutable?
- Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?
- Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?
- Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?
- Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?
- How fast are exceptions?
- Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?
- Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?
- Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?
- Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?
- How does Python manage memory?
- Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?
- Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?
- Why are there separate tuple and list data types?
- How are lists implemented in CPython?
- How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?
- Why must dictionary keys be immutable?
- Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?
- How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?
- Why is there no goto?
- Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?
- Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?
- Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?
- Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?
- Library and Extension FAQ
- Extending/Embedding FAQ
- Can I create my own functions in C?
- Can I create my own functions in C++?
- Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?
- How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?
- How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?
- How do I extract C values from a Python object?
- How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length?
- How do I call an object’s method from C?
- How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)?
- How do I access a module written in Python from C?
- How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?
- I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?
- How do I debug an extension?
- I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?
- How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?
- How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?
- Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?
- Python on Windows FAQ
- How do I run a Python program under Windows?
- How do I make Python scripts executable?
- Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?
- How do I make an executable from a Python script?
- Is a
*.pydfile the same as a DLL? - How can I embed Python into a Windows application?
- How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?
- How do I check for a keypress without blocking?
- Graphic User Interface FAQ
- “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ
- Glossary
- About these documents
- Dealing with Bugs
- Copyright
- History and License